The Art of War is a guide on strategy that was written in the 5th century BCE by the strategist and general Sun Tzu. Since there are thirteen chapters, each with their corresponding bullet points, this summary will be composed of thirteen subsections and summaries of the advice given.
I. Laying Plans
A state that wishes to survive must know the art of war.
The art of war is of the uttermost importance, as competition is fierce: “It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin.”
The art of war is composed of five factors that may change in form according to the situation, though they will never be completely gone.
The five constant factors are:
“The Moral Law.”
“Heaven.”
“Earth.”
“The Commander.”
“Method and Discipline.”
The fifth and sixth bullet points are both contained in a single piece of advice that is listed below.
The Moral Law refers to the state in which soldiers are disciplined and place their trust in their commander and superiors, even when faced with potential danger.
Heaven refers to the time of the day, the state of the temperature, and the weather.
The Earth “comprises distances, great and small; danger and security; open ground and narrow passes; the chances of life and death.”
The Commander, to win the respect of their soldiers, should try to be the embodiment of virtues like “wisdom, sincerity, benevolence, courage and strictness.”
Method and Discipline involve the army being well-organized, ranks being clearly defined, transportation (especially that of supplies) being planned beforehand, and the practice of having prudent spending policies.
Generals who remember the previous five pieces of advice will succeed: those who neglect them will fail.
When making decisions, one should answer the questions provided below.
This piece of advice offers seven questions, which are the following:
Which leader practices the Moral Law?
Which general is more capable?
Which side knows the environment well, as seen in their planning?
Which side is more disciplined?
Which side is stronger?
Which side sees competent soldiers and superiors?
Which side sees a stable code (“greater constancy”) of reward and punishment?
The previous seven questions will make it clear which side will win.
Generals who are able to turn the seven questions to their advantage should be kept: those that don’t should be fired.
Know the situation of the battle as a whole and try to turn any fact to your advantage.
A general should be flexible, seeing that situations do change, sometimes frequently.
“All war is based on deception.”
Hearkening to the previous piece of advice, armies must practice deception: when they’re able to launch an assault, they should make themselves look impotent; when utilizing their forces, they must seem docile; when they are close, they should make the enemy believe they are still far off; when they are far off, they should make the enemy believe they are near.
Make oneself seem weak in order to entice the enemy to attack, only to defeat them. “Feign disorder, and crush him.”
If the enemy seems to have no weaknesses, prepare for their arrival. When they are stronger than you, avoid them as much as possible.
If one’s enemy has a “choleric temper,” try to enrage them. It is also encouraged to pretend to be weak in order to make them overconfident and smug.
One should try to prevent one’s enemy from relaxing: a general’s army should try to separate that of the enemy, seeing that there is strength in numbers.
Attack the enemy in unexpected and weak areas.
Strategies must be kept secret in order to maximize their surprise.
Most of the time, victory is granted to the person who makes numerous preparations before the competition or battle.
II. Waging War
This piece of advice describes the expenditures of the army: “In the operations of war, where there are in the field a thousand swift chariots, as many heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand mail-clad soldiers, with provisions enough to carry them a thousand LI, the expenditure at home and at the front, including entertainment of guests, small items such as glue and paint, and sums spent on chariots and armor, will reach the total of a thousand ounces of silver per day. Such is the cost of raising an army of 100,000 men.”
Battles should be won as quickly as possible: since they’re usually intense in nature, if they’re too long they can exhaust the strength of one’s soldiers.
Sun Tzu reminds the reader to beware of extended periods of fighting.
If one fails to heed the previous pieces of advice and causes their army to become demoralized and weary, one will be assaulted by other people who will seize the moment to bring you down while you’re weak. “Then no man, however wise, will be able to avert the consequences that must ensue.”
While it’s true that rushing in without thinking is stupid, waiting too long to take decisive action is also foolish.
Prolonged war always damages the countries that participate.
Those who know how to wage wars properly frequently have first-hand experiences in them themselves.
Competent soldiers don’t need an excess of supplies to do well.
While one should bring supplies with them on campaigns, they should also take the resources of the enemy when possible to not only nourish themself, but to weaken the enemy.
The common citizen may become poor when they’re taxed heavily to maintain an army.
When an army is in an area with a civilian population, said population will be strained: since the demand for resources skyrockets due to the influx of people, their respective prices will be increased as well.
Incensing the public by putting excessive financial drains on them is a terrible tactic.
The thirteen and fourteenth bullet points are both contained in a single piece of advice that is listed below.
Sun Tzu warns of the potential danger of financial strain: “With this loss of substance and exhaustion of strength, the homes of the people will be stripped bare, and three-tenths of their income will be dissipated; while government expenses for broken chariots, worn-out horses, breast-plates and helmets, bows and arrows, spears and shields, protective mantles, draught-oxen and heavy weapons, will amount to four-tenths of its total revenue.
Sun Tzu reiterates the importance of taking supplies from the enemy: “One cartload of the enemy’s provisions is equivalent to twenty of one’s own.”
To motivate one’s soldiers, their emotions (especially wrath) should be stirred, and they should be allowed to pillage in the case of victory, as that will provide them with an incentive to do well in the future.
Soldiers who demonstrate bravery should be rewarded. For instance, “in chariot fighting, when ten or more chariots have been taken, those should be rewarded who took the first. Our own flags should be substituted for those of the other, and the chariots mingled and used in conjunction with ours.” Sun Tzu also calls for mercy to be shown to captured enemy soldiers in order to have them switch sides.
It is a great skill to use the “conquered foe to augment one’s own strength.”
The main aim of war is victory, not the length of the fighting.
Generals are not only responsible for the fates of their soldiers but the health of the nation.
III. Attack by Stratagem
If enemy territory is taken, it should be conquered relatively unscathed, seeing that it is inopportune and unprofitable to rule over a ruined land. “In the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the enemy’s country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good. So, too, it is better to recapture an army entire than to destroy it, to capture a regiment, a detachment or a company entire than to destroy them.”
“Supreme excellence” is seen not in fighting and winning all your battles: it is best manifest in being able to win by crushing the enemy’s spirit and morale without fighting.
The smartest tactic is to thwart the plans of the enemy, the second best being preventing the enemy from organizing and preparing for the fight, and the third consists of attacking in the traditional way, “and the worst policy of all is to besiege walled cities” due to the high casualties that will probably happen.
Besieging walled cities are foolish due to the fact that things like tents have to be moved right outside the city, which is both time-consuming and expensive, not-to-mention tactically weak (the enemy can interfere while the living spaces are being set up). This also applies to the implements of war (ex. catapults).
If the general declares a siege in a fit of wrath, Sun Tzu says that their men will “assault like swarming ants, with the result that one-third of his men are slain, while the town still remains untaken.”
Sun Tzu reiterates that the best kind of general wins without actually fighting.
Strategy consists of winning as quickly as possible with as few casualties as possible.
An army’s size has direct implications on the best strategy to adopt to win: “if our forces are ten to the enemy’s one, to surround him; if five to one, to attack him; if twice as numerous, to divide our army into two.”
If one’s forces are equal to those of the enemy, fighting can commence. If, on the other hand, one has fewer soldiers than the enemy, the enemy should be avoided. If one’s army is weaker in many regards to the enemy, one will do best to flee to avoid defeat.
There is strength in numbers: even if an army is strong, if they lack soldiers they’ll be eventually overtaken.
Countries should be careful which generals they appoint, as their fates lie in their hands.
The following three bullet points list the follies generals may commit.
By not knowing their army well enough, seen in how their orders are difficult to heed. “By commanding the army to advance or to retreat, being ignorant of the fact that it cannot obey. This is called hobbling the army.”
By not knowing how an army works by treating soldiers like civilians: this will cause his soldiers to be frustrated.
By appointing incompetent people to hold vital positions and not being flexible enough, which will only cause one’s soldiers to no longer trust in said individual’s judgment.
When an army is dissatisfied and lacking trust in their ruler, dissidence and anarchy can occur, making victory impossible.
Five things are required for victory:
A general knows when to fight and when to wait.
A general knows how to deal with stronger and weaker enemies.
A general knows how to maintain morale and discipline in their soldiers.
A general who keeps themself vigilant while waiting for the enemy to drop their guard.
A general who is trusted by the ruler of the country they belong to and are given much authority pertaining to what they can do to ensure stability.
Sun Tzu demonstrates the importance of knowing what’s within and what’s outside your control, which is also a key tenet of Stoicism: “If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle.”
IV. Tactical Dispositions
Experienced soldiers try to make it difficult for themselves to fail while observing the flaws of the enemy.
Preventing one’s defeat lies in keeping oneself disciplined and vigilant: the opportunity to win is provided by the opposing side in their weakness or ignorance.
“Thus the good fighter is able to secure himself against defeat, but cannot make certain of defeating the enemy.”
It is possible that one succeeds without knowing the exact reason: they simply do what they have to do.
Playing defense means fortifying oneself against a loss: aggressive policies occur when an army focuses on defeating the enemy.
An army that plays the defensive signifies that it may lack necessary energy, while an army that attacks demonstrates through their actions that it has more than enough power needed to maintain itself.
Generals who focus on defense focus on hiding, while those who are specialized in aggressive policies attack unexpectedly and out of nowhere.
A way to measure the competency and knowledge of a general is to note when they see victory is in reach: if they realize that it’s possible or imminent only shortly before the results are decided, they’re not very capable. “To see victory only when it is within the common herd is not the acme of excellence.”
Using public opinion to measure one’s success is foolish, as most people aren’t professional in your field.
Knowing and doing the obvious doesn’t help anyone: “To lift an autumn hair is no sign of great strength; to see the sun and moon is no sign of sharp sight; to hear the noise of thunder is no sign of a quick ear.”
Winning quickly and easily is an excellent indicator of skill.
Those who win quickly and easily may not have a very good reputation, as being too good at something may leave little room for courage, seeing that experience and foresight may play bigger roles.
Refraining from mistakes prevents not only defeat but speeds victory: making no mistakes means that the only way an enemy can counteract is by holding themselves accountable to the same standard you are following, which is never guaranteed.
“Hence the skillful fighter puts himself into a position which makes defeat impossible, and does not miss the moment for defeating the enemy.”
The ideal strategist wins and then fights (them making successful plans is already a victory) while the person who is destined to lose acts first and tries to win later.
The ideal leader focuses on strategy and discipline to maximize the chance of victory.
Military methods include: “firstly, Measurement; secondly, Estimation of quantity; thirdly, Calculation; fourthly, Balancing of chances; fifthly, Victory.”
Measurement exists due to the Earth, estimation of quantity to measurement, calculation to the estimation of quantity, balancing of chances to calculation, and victory to the balancing of chances, clearly illustrating that many factors needed for success and accuracy are interrelated.
A unified army that is able to cooperate with itself is much more difficult to defeat than a routed one: “A victorious army opposed to a routed one, is as a pound’s weight placed in the scale against a single grain.”
A strength of the tactic of assault lies in the fact that it can be quite an awesome spectacle: “The onrush of a conquering force is like the bursting of pent-up waters into a chasm a thousand fathoms deep.”
V. Energy
Controlling a large number of people doesn’t have to be difficult: a realistic person should be able to organize them into manageable subsections.
Using signs and signals to quickly spread messages is a key way to maintain organization.
An army capable of withstanding the ferocity of an enemy’s attack lies in its strength and the unpreparedness of the enemy.
In a successful assault, the maximum number of soldiers should attack the single weakest point of the enemy, in a way akin to how a grindstone is used to smash an egg.
More than direct aggression is needed to secure victory.
“Indirect tactics”/strategies that don’t involve hand-to-hand combat exist in great variety in a gigantic multitude: they are as “inexhaustible as Heaven and Earth, unending as the flow of rivers and streams; like the sun and moon, they end but to begin anew; like the four seasons, they pass away to return once more.”
The previous bullet point can be noted as correct, seen in how even a few musical notes can be used to create a large number of potentially beautiful songs.
Likewise, Sun Tzu maintains that there are five primary colors (blue, yellow, red, white, and black) that, despite the limits of their numbers, are able to “produce more hues than can ever” be noted by the human eye.
Sun Tzu continues that there are five fundamental tastes to the human tongue: sourness, acridness, saltiness, sweetness, and bitterness, “yet combinations of them yield more flavors than can ever be tasted.”
Paying homage to the previous bullet points, while there are only two main methods of winning victories - the direct and the indirect - combinations of these two will produce a virtually infinite amount of possibilities.
Direct and indirect strategies lead to each other, leading to no end in sight.
When soldiers move, everything in their path changes.
Being able to make the right decisions is like being a falcon that can judge when to seize its prey.
Capable soldiers act swiftly with no hesitation upon putting a maneuver into action.
Energy should be stored and harnessed while making decisions is what releases said energy: “Energy may be likened to the bending of a crossbow; decision, to the releasing of a trigger.”
A capable person should imagine what they and others will do if the unexpected happens, including the possibility of confusion and disorder.
Pretending to go through trials beforehand is a great way to deal with them when they actually happen: “Simulated disorder postulates perfect discipline, simulated fear postulates courage; simulated weakness postulates strength.”
Pretending to be disordered and scared can be effective against the enemy, seeing that armies that can pretend to be so show themselves capable of doing many things.
Deceit is especially important when one’s enemy is traveling.
Lying in wait for the enemy while they’re moving can be effective, seeing that they may be exhausted, not-mentioning that their route, if discerned, can be laid with traps and soldiers.
Intelligent generals focus on the combined energy of their army, not individual effort, hence why capable officers are needed to inspire the troops.
When soldiers are able to cooperate, they are like rolling logs and moving stones, seen in how they need to be influenced by an external force to begin moving.
Sun Tzu lays out the premise of a physics question: “Thus the energy developed by good fighting men is as the momentum of a round stone rolled down a mountain thousands of feet in height. So much on the subject of energy.”
VI. Weak Points and Strong
The army who arrives at the battlefield first will be well-prepared and well-rested; conversely, the army which arrives last will come exhausted and will suffer a significant disadvantage.
Prudent individuals make their enemies adjust to their actions and plans, not vice-versa.
When a capable general is in charge, they can either feign weakness or inflict damage to cause the enemy to be at a loss.
The enemy is to be faced with difficulty as much as possible: “If the enemy is taking his ease, he can harass him; if well supplied with food, he can starve him out; if quietly encamped, he can force him to move.”
When it comes to aggressive moves, attack areas where the enemy must defend and quickly move to areas where you are not expected to appear.
Armies can move efficiently if they are not faced with difficulties.
Attacking undefended areas virtually guarantees victory while setting up a base in an inaccessible area is a wise decision for the sake of defense.
One’s enemies should be confused as to what to attack and defend, as that will cause confusion, insecurity, and a disproportionate allocation of soldiers and resources.
Subtlety and secrecy are to be praised.
An army capable of moving quicker than the enemy can escape if needed.
Attacking enemies unexpectedly can cause them to waste resources, especially if they already set up camp in a certain area.
Launching surprise attacks and utilizing deterrents can prevent the enemy from undertaking aggressive policies.
Keeping an army secretive while spying on the enemy is a key way to surprise the enemy by separating their forces while they’re complacent.
The army of a general should be unified while that of his enemy should be divided into numerous pieces.
Following the previous piece of advice will lead to victory.
As stated before, one should keep their plans of attack secret for as long as possible, as that will force the enemy to prepare for an attack in multiple areas, decreasing the chance of their victory: “the enemy will have to prepare against a possible attack at several different points; and his forces being thus distributed in many directions, the numbers we shall have to face at any given point will be proportionately few.”
If the enemy strengthens a certain part of their army, they will weaken the other sections of the army: “If he sends reinforcements everywhere, he will everywhere be weak.”
The key test to see whether a general has enough soldiers or not is to see whether they’re preparing against potential attacks or forcing the enemy to make preparations against them.
Knowing when and where a battle can take place is key to helpful preparation.
If a general doesn’t know the details of a future battle, what the general can do with their army is greatly curtailed, as they can’t jeopardize their force.
There is more to winning than having a numerical advantage.
Spying on the enemy can offset a numerical disadvantage.
Faking an attack on the enemy can make them divulge their plans while exposing their weaknesses.
Comparing the army of the enemy with your own encourages accurate observations.
Keeping your plans secret from enemy spies will keep them in the dark.
What separates the common person from the experienced soldier is that the latter uses the weaknesses of the enemy’s strategies against them.
“All men can see the tactics whereby I conquer, but what none can see is the strategy out of which victory is evolved.”
Don’t repeat the same tactics you used in previous victories, as that will be predictable. Instead, vary the strategies used to keep the enemy guessing and nervous, especially considering how, as stated before, there are a wide variety of strategies that may be successful, including those which haven’t been tried yet.
Orders in the military should act like water: they go from the top members of the army to the bottom efficiently and without delay.
Avoid the strengths of the opponent while focusing on their weaknesses.
Soldiers should be like water: water is flexible and can pass through much, and soldiers should be flexible when it comes to their strategy and behavior according to the situation and the disposition of the enemy.
Like water, the course and form of war are not guaranteed.
Flexibility can be clearly tested in whether one can adjust one’s strategies upon learning of those of the enemy.
The weather and how long days last are mandatory knowledge for generals: “The five elements (water, fire, wood, metal, earth) are not always equally predominant; the four seasons make way for each other in turn. There are short days and long; the moon has its periods of waning and waxing.”
VII. Maneuvering
The ruler needs to give the general the power needed to do well.
Generals must make sure the soldiers get along with each other.
Tactical maneuvering is described as the most difficult thing to do for a general, seeing how their forces can be exposed to the forces of the enemy.
Deviation is seen in how one will surprise the enemy and force them to escape quickly, thereby sowing panic and fear into their forces.
Trying to move an army of undisciplined soldiers is utterly foolish.
Sending part of an army to get an advantage can be a waste of resources, as it takes time to reach one’s destination.
Forcing one’s soldiers to move uncommonly quickly in unfavorable conditions will cause them to be so disoriented and disorganized they’ll be easy prey for the enemy.
Not all of one’s soldiers are tough: those that are weak will either die or fall behind, causing Sun Tzu to note that only one-tenth of your army will reach its destination.
Marching fifty LI in an attempt to outmaneuver the enemy will cause your side to lose many soldiers in the process (Sun Tzu estimates a full half).
Marching thirty LI will eliminate one-third of your army.
While it’s true that taking supplies will slow down your army, not taking them means utter defeat.
Before making treaties, know your supposed ally and what they hope to get out of the agreement.
Knowing the terrain of an area is a prerequisite to marching an army into the said territory.
Use local guides for the sake of navigation.
Keep your thoughts secret from those around you unless you have to communicate with them.
Be flexible: the state of the army needs to be maintained in the face of all problems.
Generals should make their armies move as quickly as the wind and be as strong as the forest.
When pillaging an area, the whole affair should be done as quickly as possible.
“Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night, and when you move, fall like a thunderbolt.”
When the countryside is raided, soldiers should divide the spoils. If a new territory is taken, it should be given to the soldiers in an organized way.
Practice foresight and prudence.
Whoever learns deviation and maneuvering will win their battles.
Gongs, drums, banners, and flags are absolutely essential to quick and effective communication on the battlefield, seeing that there’s no time to waste in an actual battle.
Building off the previous bullet point, means of communication help convey highly specific messages.
To prevent people from acting on their cowardice and running away, make one’s army a compact body: that will prevent people from escaping, seeing that their comrades will prevent them from doing so.
In the night, use signal-fires and drums. During the day, use flags and banners.
The morale of the soldiers and the general is mandatory for speedy success.
Sun Tzu maintains that soldiers are most awake during the morning: therefore, generals should use their soldiers to do what has to be done not long after they awake.
Intelligent generals attack the enemy when they’re tired, nostalgic, and demoralized.
Patience is needed, seeing that a good opportunity to strike may take some time to appear.
Staying ahead from the enemy in many aspects (ex. food supplies and waiting at a destination) should be maintained at all times.
One should refrain from attacking the enemy when they still possess their morale, which is best seen in the maintenance and organization of their banners.
“It is a military axiom not to advance uphill against the enemy, nor to oppose him when he comes downhill.”
Generals shouldn’t allow themselves to be deceived by ruses of the enemy, especially false retreats.
Generals should allow the enemy to leave if the situation seems suspicious (ex. if they’re beaten too easily).
When a general surrounds the enemy, they should leave an opening for them to escape, as that will cause discontent and anxiety.
The previous bullet points in this section are major components of the art of war.
VIII. Variation in Tactics
Generals, before fighting a war, need to collect their army and to organize them accordingly.
Do not set up camp in dangerous areas or compromised positions, seeing that the position may be untenable.
Generals should be free-thinkers: they should think twice before doing anything and should disobey their ruler if they order anything foolish.
Generals that know the benefits and costs of military operations have the necessary authority to command their soldiers.
Generals that don’t meet the criteria of the last bullet point will have difficulty doing well.
Leaders who know the Five Advantages but don’t appreciate the art of variation will not reach their full potential.
Realism is needed: there is no perfect, flawless plan, as everything has its according cost.
Being realistic helps prepare for victory, as it informs people of the probability that their expectations will come to pass.
Being willing to admit one’s mistakes is needed for the probability of improving.
Constantly pressuring the enemy is likely to cause them to break.
The art of war mainly focuses on one’s own preparations, not the enemy’s weaknesses: “The art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s not coming, but on our own readiness to receive him; not on the chance of his not attacking, but rather on the fact that we have made our position unassailable.”
There are five main weaknesses that can cause a general to make terrible blunders:
“Recklessness, which leads to destruction.”
Cowardice, “which leads to capture.”
Wrath, “which can be provoked by insults.”
A sense of honor “which is sensitive to shame.”
Too much concern for his soldiers, “which exposes him to worry and trouble.”
The previous five weaknesses are likely to harm the general and their soldiers.
When an army is captured and its general executed, they probably made one of the five previous mistakes.
IX. The Army on the March
Use the natural environment to conceal yourself from the eyes of the enemy.
Camp in tall areas to prevent the enemy from being able to sneak up on you; however, try to avoid fighting in tall places due to the heights involved.
Try to avoid being near rivers: if the enemy attacks, many could drown when they try to escape.
Don’t attack enemy forces when they’re in the river: wait for half of them to be across before launching an assault, thereby splitting the opposing army in two.
“If you are anxious to fight, you should not go to meet the invader near a river which he has to cross.”
Keep your weapons at a higher vantage point than the enemy.
Try to avoid salt-marshes as quickly as possible, as the ground is unstable.
If an army has to fight in a salt-marsh, the general should instruct their soldiers to utilize the grass and trees to hide.
“In dry, level country, take up an easily accessible position with rising ground to your right and on your rear, so that the danger may be in front, and safety lie behind. So much for campaigning in flat country.”
There are four branches of military knowledge that can be used to increase the chances of victory.
Try to fight at high ground and in areas with plenty of light.
Avoid setting up camps in marshes, as marshes could transmit diseases (stagnant water).
Generals should have their armies occupy the part of a hill or bank that is sunny, seeing that it’ll let them see the enemy easily.
If a river is overflooded, one must wait before crossing with their army.
Areas with extreme geographic formations should be avoided as much as possible (ex. cliffs, waterfalls, crags, thickets, quagmires, and crevasses).
It would do one much good to force the enemy to go to the aforementioned places, as they’ll be trapped.
When a territory is entered, a general’s soldiers should search areas where enemy soldiers may hide to prevent them from launching a surprise attack.
Do not underestimate the enemy: they are capable of spying on you.
Practice calmness in battle when waiting for the enemy to approach you.
Generals frequently make their side look unprepared to draw out enemy forces.
Trees are great cover for soldiers.
A sudden appearance of birds and wild animals is indicative of the enemy’s approach.
Sun Tzu helps the reader figure out the formation of the enemy: “When there is dust rising in a high column, it is the sign of chariots advancing; when the dust is low, but spread over a wide area, it betokens the approach of infantry. When it branches out in different directions, it shows that parties have been sent to collect firewood. A few clouds of dust moving to and fro signify that the army is encamping.”
Before an enemy attacks, they’ll usually try to stay low while gathering supplies. On the other hand, if they make loud threats, they’re probably going to leave, seeing that they’re trying to intimidate the other side into not attacking.
When chariots appear, a battle will ensue.
Negotiations are useless if there is no sworn agreement (today the role of sworn agreements has been largely replaced with written contracts).
When soldiers organize, a battle will probably happen.
When enemy soldiers appear to be both advancing and retreating, it could be bait for the general to attack.
If enemy soldiers are leaning on their spears, the army’s probably starving.
If enemy soldiers sent to collect water begin drinking it themselves, the army’s probably suffering from thirst.
If enemy soldiers are incapable of mustering the energy to secure an advantage, the army’s probably exhausted.
If birds enter an area, enemy soldiers are probably absent, seeing that birds value some degree of silence.
Generals should make sure that there are no disturbances in the military base as well as appeasing the senior officers if they’re in a bad mood, as the attitude they carry can easily be indicative of the attitude of the majority of the soldiers.
“When an army feeds its horses with grain and kills its cattle for food, and when the men do not hang their cooking-pots over the camp-fires, showing that they will not return to their tents, you may know that they are determined to fight to the death.”
When soldiers are gossipping in small groups in hushed tones, they’re probably complaining.
Generals that give many rewards to their soldiers believe that the enemy is about to lose, and they issue a large number of punishments when they’re suffering from insecurity and a fear of loss.
Something greatly correlated with stupidity is a rapidly changing mood and initial overconfidence: those who aggressively begin a battle only to run away after encountering the enemy are embarrassments.
Envoys/ambassadors that compliment you do so because their masters are in a bad situation: they want to negotiate.
If the enemy’s soldiers show up but don’t attack, generals should pay much attention.
It is no large disadvantage if the number of one’s soldiers is equal to that of the enemy: all that means is that you can’t launch a direct assault on them. “What we can do is simply to concentrate all our available strength, keep a close watch on the enemy, and obtain reinforcements.”
The general who practices no prudence or logic and underestimates their enemy is asking for trouble/capture.
The ideal relationship a general should have with their soldiers is one of mutual respect yet clear distinction: they must punish and discipline their soldiers for misdeeds, and shouldn’t grow too attached to them, seeing that too much emotion will make it difficult for both to do what may be in the best interests of the army.
“Therefore soldiers must be treated in the first instance with humanity, but kept under control by means of iron discipline. This is a certain road to victory.”
Discipline must be constant and unrelenting: habit makes character.
Generals should genuinely believe in their soldiers while giving orders that signify their trust in them.
X. Terrain
There are six kinds of terrain:
Accessible ground.
Entangling ground.
Temporizing ground.
Narrow passes.
Precipitous heights.
Positions that are far from the enemy.
Accessible land is ground that can be easily entered by both sides.
Generals who find themselves on accessible ground should keep the enemy within their line of vision at all times.
Entangling land is ground that can be abandoned but is hard to take back.
If the enemy takes over your land but is unprepared, the general can take back their land in an assault. However, if the enemy is prepared for them, then disaster can be expected if aggressive policies are pursued.
Temporizing ground is “the position … such that neither side will gain by making the first move.”
In temporizing ground, generals should hold their ground. If the enemy still doesn’t move, they should pretend to retreat, giving the enemy an incentive to attack, only to launch a counter-attack.
It’s a notable advantage to enter and set up a fortress in a narrow pass before the enemy does so.
Follow an enemy into a narrow pass only if their defenses and forces are weak.
Generals should try to set up camp on top of precipitous heights in order to survey the surroundings easily.
If the enemy reaches the precipitous heights before you, don’t attack, as they’ll have the high ground while your forces will be easy prey for projectiles and traps.
If the enemy is far away from you and has a similar number of soldiers, it is not worth attacking them, as moving one’s soldiers is a large expenditure of resources.
Knowing the six kinds of terrain will lead to success.
There are six kinds of negative outcomes for armies that arise not due to natural reasons, but due to the weakness of the general. They are:
Flight.
Insubordination.
Collapse.
Ruin.
Disorganization.
Rout.
Flight occurs when an army is severely outnumbered.
Insubordination occurs when discipline isn’t enforced. Collapse happens when the demands of the officers on the common soldier is too high, causing the entire army to fall apart.
Ruin happens when the higher officers become angry at the general for their supposed weakness and disobey orders, inviting the possibility of the enemy trouncing them.
Disorganization occurs when the general doesn’t act according to his rank and is hesitant and indecisive: “When the general is weak and without authority; when his orders are not clear and distinct; when there are no fixed duties assigned to officers and men, and the ranks are formed in a slovenly haphazard manner, the result is utter disorganization.”
Generals can expect to have their forces routed if they know their army is weaker than that of the enemy but attack anyway, or if they place inexperienced soldiers at the front of the army.
The previous six mistakes are the main ways of being defeated and should be avoided at all costs.
Being able to discern the strength of the enemy while planning to deal with potential problems and other variables is a key component of a competent general.
Knowledge and practice of the advice contained in the book are needed for success.
If a battle will most likely end in victory, the general should attack the enemy even if ordered not to do so by their ruler. If a battle will most likely end in defeat, the general must refrain from attacking, even if ordered to do so by the ruler.
The ideal general who is “the jewel of the kingdom” is one who desires no power or lusts after worldly goods; said general fights for the right reasons, and therefore isn’t afraid to retreat, seeing that their main focus is reasoned strategy.
Generals should treat their soldiers well as if they are their children. “Regard your soldiers as your children, and they will follow you into the deepest valleys; look upon them as your own beloved sons, and they will stand by you even unto death.”
The previous point must be tempered by high standards: being too kind towards one’s soldiers while not maintaining enough discipline will cause them to become spoiled, making them useless for many military operations.
A general’s army needs to know what is going on along with the general: they need to know the eventual goal of the campaign.
Knowing the enemy while not knowing one’s own side is a recipe for disaster.
Knowing one’s immediate surroundings is mandatory for success.
Capable soldiers are never taken off-guard, as they calculate the world around them in a logical way by thinking of all the possibilities.
“If you know the enemy and know yourself, your victory will not stand in doubt; if you know Heaven and know Earth, you may make your victory complete.”
XI. The Nine Situations
Sun Tzu states that there are nine types of ground:
Dispersive ground.
Facile ground.
Contentious ground.
Open ground.
Ground of intersecting highways.
Serious ground.
Difficult ground.
Hemmed-in ground.
Desperate ground.
When a general is fighting in their own territory, they are doing so on dispersive ground.
Facile ground is the territory of the enemy that is on the outskirts.
Land that offers advantages to both sides is contentious ground, as both sides will contend for ownership of it.
Open ground is ground that allows for quick movement.
The ground of intersecting highways is ground that contains the paths to many areas through structures like roads.
Serious ground is the ground of the enemy that is deep within their territory: one, therefore, can see their cities with the according defenses once they enter the territory.
Difficult ground, as its name suggests, is ground that is difficult to travel through.
Hemmed-in ground is ground that should be avoided as much as possible, seeing that it is characterized by “narrow gorges” and “tortuous paths” that cause one’s forces to be compressed together, “so that a small number of the enemy would suffice to crush a large body of our men.”
Desperate ground is land in which one’s army can survive only by fighting on the spot.
Do not fight on dispersive ground but continue attacking on facile ground. On contentious ground, refrain from attacking.
Don’t try to prevent the enemy from leaving on open ground, seeing that it will be difficult to catch them. When on intersecting highways, a general would do well to try to find and cooperate with their allies.
When in serious ground, plunder the area for resources. In difficult ground, move consistently to leave as quickly as possible.
Use strategy when encased in hemmed-in ground and fight on desperate ground.
Skilled soldiers and generals know how to confuse the enemy and to route them, thereby stripping them of their sense of calm and cooperation.
Try to split the enemy into various parts.
Know when to attack and when to stop.
When the enemy is well-organized and capable, deal with them by seizing something which they care about, ex. a strategic area.
Speed is of the essence.
The more an army penetrates into enemy territory, the more they will cooperate and unify against the enemy, thereby strengthening their potential.
When crops are available for one’s troops, take some for their nourishment.
Refrain from exhausting one’s soldiers, seeing that they need to be able to improvise and adjust at all times.
A general should make one’s soldiers unafraid of death by making it difficult for them to escape, as that will leave them with only one option: “Throw your soldiers into positions whence there is no escape, and they will prefer death to flight. If they will face death, there is nothing they may not achieve. Officers and men alike will put forth their uttermost strength.”
Adding to the previous bullet point, soldiers who are in terrible situations frequently become unafraid, as there is no place for them to run anymore, causing them to pour their collective energy into the completion of one goal.
While discipline is important, a general shouldn’t underestimate their soldiers, as they do possess experience and common sense (most of them, at least).
Do not let superstitious elements (ex. fortune-telling or weather phenomena like lightning bolts) discourage you or your soldiers, seeing that they have no empirical basis.
Soldiers have the same desires and weaknesses as the rest of humanity.
It is perfectly natural for soldiers to be scared before the battle, as their imagination is making a situation worse than it actually is: when they finally fight, it’s likely for them to become brave and fierce, as they’re absorbed in the moment.
A skilled strategist knows how to make the best out of every situation: “The skillful tactician may be likened to the Shuai-Jan. Now the Shuai-Jan is a snake that is found in the Ch’ang mountains. Strike at its head, and you will be attacked by its tail; strike at its tail, and you will be attacked by its head; strike at its middle, and you will be attacked by head and tail both.”
A general and their soldiers can indeed act like the Shuai-Jan, as cooperation and flexibility are simultaneously possible.
Trust needs to be given to one’s soldiers, not just their weapons.
Setting standards for one’s army (ex. courage) is a great way to keep an army capable.
Both brave and cowardly, experienced and inexperienced soldiers can be effectively used in their own ways.
Capable generals treat their armies like a single person.
Generals should maintain the privacy of their plans, practice fairness with their soldiers, and keep their army disciplined.
Generals may sometimes need to deceive their own soldiers for their own benefit.
Generals may change their strategies and move their soldiers to keep the enemy in the dark.
If a general keeps their soldiers in the dark of their plan, the general should take them deep into enemy territory before telling them of the situation in order to motivate them.
Generals need the trust of their soldiers if they are to follow his lead.
Generals need to endanger their armies for the sake of victory: “To muster his host and bring it into danger:-this may be termed the business of the general.”
The nine types of ground and human nature need to be studied if victory is desired.
When invading enemy territory, a general should try to penetrate relatively deeply, as that will rally one’s soldiers.
Critical ground is when a general takes his army from their home territory. A general knows they’re on an intersecting highway when they can communicate relatively easily with other parties.
Going deeply into a country is serious ground; entering only the outskirts is facile ground.
When an army is between an enemy’s fortress and a narrow valley, it is in hemmed-in ground. When there is no method of escape, the army is on desperate ground.
On dispersive ground, try to rally one’s soldiers. On facile ground, make sure the army remains unified and cooperative.
On contentious ground, fortify every part of the army.
Pay close attention to both sides on open ground. On intersecting highways, try to ally oneself with allies if they are available.
It is vital to maintain that supplies are provided to one’s army when on serious ground. On difficult ground, keep moving.
Prevent retreat on hemmed-in ground. On desperate ground, a general should tell the soldiers to fight for their lives, as that is the only option.
Soldiers fight particularly hard and obey without question when they know they’re in danger.
Knowing everything in agreements and surroundings is needed for victory.
Not practicing the following (“four of five principles”) will lead to calamity.
Intimidating one’s enemy at the beginning of a battle can lead to victory.
Utilizing soldiers and resources of other nations isn’t recommended, seeing that one’s plans can be revealed.
Being willing to reward bravery and giving orders that may contradict previous ones is needed for victory.
When things are good, let the soldiers know they are so. When things are going poorly, keep them in the dark, seeing that they’ll be discouraged if they discover the truth.
“Place your army in deadly peril, and it will survive; plunge it into desperate straits, and it will come off in safety.”
Risk is needed for success: playing it safe will delay victory if it is possible at all.
Inferring what the enemy desires is needed for success.
Pursuing the enemy signifies that one has already won.
Intelligence is needed with brute force to ensure victory.
When a battle begins, keep everyone inside in and everyone outside out: “block the frontier passes, destroy the official tallies, and stop the passage of all emissaries.”
Consistently display one’s authority through a solemn and serious attitude.
Carpe diem.
After taking a vital area, wait for the enemy to inevitably show themself.
Preparation is key, and knowing what’s within one’s control is mandatory for success.
When fighting with an enemy, first be coy (like a maiden, as described by Sun Tzu) before rushing in unexpectedly when the enemy is disorganized.
XII. The Attack By Fire
There are five ways of attacking with fire: soldiers can be burned in the camp, stores of food can be burned, baggage trains can be set aflame, weapons can be consumed by the inferno, and catapults can launch fire towards the enemy.
Means are needed for an end: always keep the materials needed for starting fires in good condition.
Time and weather are key methods to decide whether to use fire attacks or not.
The best time to start fires is when the weather is hot and dry, “the special days are those when the moon is in the constellations of the Sieve, the Wall, the Wing or the Cross-bar.”
When utilizing fire as a weapon, follow the following five pieces of advice.
(1) When the camp of the enemy is set aflame, attack.
(2) If there is a fire in the enemy camp but the enemy’s soldiers retain their fortitude, restrain yourself from declaring an assault.
(3) When the flames appear to be a climax, attack if possible. If not, considering the danger to one’s soldiers, remain where one is.
(4) Utilize fire as a weapon at the correct moment.
(5) Launch objects in the windward direction: if objects are launched against the wind (leeward), the fire may die down.
Winds that occur during the day last a long time while night breezes are short in their lifespan.
Besides knowing the five developments of fire, generals should look at the constellations to know the season and to keep track of time using watches.
Fire and water can both be used to win victories.
While water can be a tremendous force, it may not destroy the belongings of the enemy: it will only soak or damage them.
Not being disciplined leads to disaster.
“The enlightened ruler lays his plans well ahead; the good general cultivates his resources.”
Do not launch an attack or move camp unless there’s a reason that warrants such behavior, seeing that doing so without a valid justification is a waste of resources.
Generals should refrain from sending their soldiers to fight if they’re in an angry mood, seeing that actions done in wrath frequently end badly.
Be logical and know the risks and rewards of every course of action.
Feelings are only temporary and are hard to predict.
Kingdoms that are destroyed can’t be restored; likewise, the dead can’t be revived.
Good rulers are attentive and skeptical while excellent generals are careful. “This is the way to keep a country at peace and an army intact.”
XIII. The Use of Spies
Sun Tzu writes once more of the costs associated with war: “Raising a host of a hundred thousand men and marching them great distances entails heavy loss on the people and a drain on the resources of the State. The daily expenditure will amount to a thousand ounces of silver. There will be commotion at home and abroad, and men will drop down exhausted on the highways. As many as seven hundred thousand families will be impeded in their labor.”
While conquests may last years, decisive battles that decide the ultimate victor of the war may be extremely short (ex. lasting only a single day). Following this logic, being stingy is foolish, as one will lose much more than anticipated: “to remain in ignorance of the enemy’s condition simply because one grudges the outlay of a hundred ounces of silver in honors and emoluments, is the height of inhumanity.”
Stingy generals and rulers don’t deserve their titles.
Foreknowledge helps generals and rulers win victories.
Foreknowledge must be learned: more than pure reason is needed to develop this skill.
If one wants to know what the enemy’s attitude is, know them for oneself.
There are five classes of spies:
Local spies.
Inward spies.
Converted spies.
Doomed spies.
Surviving spies.
“Divine manipulation of the threads” refers to successful spies that have not been caught or persuaded to commit betrayal yet.
Local spies are spies that are recruited from the citizens of the district.
Inward spies are the enemy’s former allies that have switched sides.
Converted spies are the enemy’s spies that were captured and have been persuaded to backstab their former masters.
Doomed spies, staying true to their name, do things only for the sake of deception: they go into the enemy’s camp to try to deceive them, knowing full well they may never leave.
Surviving spies are those spies that infiltrate the base of the enemy to bring back news.
The selection of choosing spies must be extremely specialized, seeing that spies are a huge component of a possible victory. Furthermore, “None should be more liberally rewarded. In no other business should greater secrecy be preserved.”
Successful spies are usually shrewd.
Spies should be shown honesty and kindness to keep them loyal.
Practice skepticism when listening to what spies have to report.
Spies can be used for many affairs.
If spies accidentally utter important facts to other people, they and the people they spoke to should be put to death to keep the secret a secret - “If a secret piece of news is divulged by a spy before the time is ripe, he must be put to death together with the man to whom the secret was told.”
Spies are needed to learn the names of the allies of the enemy, making them of the uttermost importance: “Whether the object be to crush an army, to storm a city, or to assassinate an individual, it is always necessary to begin by finding out the names of the attendants, the aides-de-camp, and door-keepers and sentries of the general in command. Our spies must be commissioned to ascertain these.”
To convert the spies of the enemy, when they’re captured they should be given good treatment and bribes to soften their hearts.
Converted spies can in turn recruit local and inward spies, bolstering one’s information network.
Doomed spies may need converted spies to be effective, seeing how converted spies generally know the situation in their home base very well.
Surviving spies also owe their usefulness to converted spies.
The purpose of spying is to learn more about the tactics of the enemy, “and this knowledge can only be derived, in the first instance, from the converted spy. Hence it is essential that the converted spy be treated with the utmost liberality.”
Successful dynasties make use of capable officials and spies.
The only people to successfully use spies are capable rulers and wise generals, seeing that doing so requires not only management but good judgment. Furthermore, “Spies are a most important element in war, because on them depends an army’s ability to move.”
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Personal thoughts:
The Art of War by Sun Tzu is a great book in terms of not only strategy, but realism and resourcefulness. Although the book was written thousands of years ago, its importance is still obvious and present, seen in how almost all the advice can still be practiced, albeit in a much-changed form (instead of generals trying to beat the enemy, it can be regular civilians trying to improve themselves and to make the most of their respective situations and environments). While the book is very short, its strength lies in it being so, as Sun Tzu is terse, descriptive, and clear in the advice he has to offer the reader. I personally appreciate the organized format of the book, seeing that it’s obvious that Sun Tzu took great care to make the book as effective as possible. I highly recommend The Art of War to anyone interested in war, strategy, intelligence, virtues (ex. self-control and prudence), and historical works.
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