Behave: The Biology of Humans At Our Best and Worst was published in 2017 and was written by Robert M. Sapolsky, a professor of courses like biology and neurological science at Stanford. Behave, like its name suggests, focuses on human behavior and the factors which heavily influence it, and due to its extensive size, delivers a gripping narrative on the behavior of Homo Sapiens. However, due to the sheer extent of this book, I will only talk about chapters one to seven, leaving the rest for the reader to explore.
Sapolsky begins his book by stating that “violence will always be a part of the human experience that is profoundly hard to understand” since people don’t hate all kinds of violence - only the “wrong kind” (3). This is seen especially well when Sapolsky talks about a fantasy he and many others commonly had - capturing and punishing Hitler. He describes how in his fantasy his violence is considered necessary, as he manages to “gain the upper hand and pin him down and handcuff him,” but then takes a darker turn when he considers the question of what should be done with Hitler to punish him for his crimes (1). Sapolsky gives a list of the violent actions which should be done to Hitler to make him pay, showing that all human beings are capable of violence: “Sever his spine at the neck, leave him paralyzed but with sensation. Take out his eyes with a blunt instrument. Puncture his eardrums, rip out his tongue. Keep him alive, tube fed, on a respirator. Immobile, unable to speak, to see, to hear, only able to feel. Then inject him with something that will give him a cancer that festers and pustulates in every corner of his body” (1). Of course, while this example of humanity’s capability for violence is extreme (few people are as bad as Hitler, after all), it illustrates the point: even the very best people have at least some inclinations towards violence, especially if it is justified. Sapolsky then discussed more about human violence by talking about the massacres committed in Indonesia under Suharto’s “New Order,” which killed half a million people - the government sponsored “purges of communists, leftists, intellectuals, unionists, and ethnic Chinese” (13). A veteran who helped massacre people, unrepentant, said that before people would be executed, they would hear an orchestra to make the process “‘more beautiful’” (13).
Sapolsky then talks about human behavior “One Second Before,” which includes the limbic system - the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe, which is effectively illustrated on page 29. On the next page, Sapolsky illustrates “brain lateralization,” which shows that the two hemispheres of the brain are clearly meant for different tasks, as the left side specializes in analytical thought, detail-oriented perception, ordered sequencing, rational thought, planning, math/science, logic, right-field vision, right-side motor skills, and is also verbal and cautious. The right side, on the other hand, focuses on intuitive thought, holistic perception, random sequencing, emotional thoughts, impulses, creative writing/art, imagination, left-field vision, left-side motor skills, and is also nonverbal and adventurous. The amygdala is then discussed, and it is the part of the brain which operates the principles of aggression and fear. Diamond said that while it was possible that destruction of the amygdala would decrease aggression, it would possibly only involve the violence which is done impulsively. Of course, like every other part of the brain, when the amygdala is tampered with, there could be dire consequences: in 1966, Charles Witman, known as the “Texas Tower” sniper, killed his wife and mother, then went to the tower of the University of Texas in Austin, proceeding to kill sixteen and wound thirty two. A year before the incident, “he had seen doctors, complaining of severe headaches and violent impulses,” and after murdering his family, he stated that he loved them, and that he was very confused as to why he did what he did (33). He also asked that when he is dead, doctors should dissect his brain to figure out his problem, and he also wanted to donate his remaining money to a mental health institute. When the autopsy was done, Whitman’s amygdala was abnormal - “a glioblastoma tumor” was pressing on it. Sapolsky said that this wasn’t the only factor in his actions, as he “repeatedly physically abused his wife and had been court-martialed as a Marine for physically threatening another soldier” (33). Sapolsky then moves on to discuss the frontal cortex, as well as how it strongly monitors social behavior. He then discusses the infamous case of Phineas Gage, whose left frontal cortex was severely damaged “when an accident with blasting powder blew a thirteen-pound iron tamping rod through the left side of his face and out the top front of his skull” (51-52). While Gage miraculously survived the accident, his personality was changed forever, as he had problems with self-control and decent behavior: “He is fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity … manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice” (52). Sapolsky, after discussing more of the amygdala and the frontal lobe, moved to the dopamine system, which, while famous for reinforcing certain behavior, also “gives insights into jealousy, resentment, and invidiousness” (67). Sapolsky discusses habituation, which mandates that “nothing is ever as good as that first time” (67). This is seen especially well in addictive behaviors such as smoking, alcohol, and drugs, as when it is indulged in in the beginning, it is mostly positive, and is capable of providing a euphoric feeling. However, as the brain gets used to the stimulation, it requires more of the same behavior to ensure the desired release of dopamine, until the behavior itself causes more pain than pleasure, in which it has become a full-blown addiction.
Sapolsky then moves to “Seconds to Minutes before,” in which he discusses subliminal and unconscious cuing, which includes race - “Our brains are incredibly attuned to skin color. Flash a face for less than a tenth of a second … so short a time that people aren’t even sure they’ve seen something” (85). Interestingly, even though the person isn’t conscious of it, if the face is not the same color as the person themself, the amygdala will activate, showing that humans are quite xenophobic. Furthermore, it is also worth noting that “the more racist someone is in an implicit test of race bias … the more activation” of the amygdala is present (85). This has real-life implications in the justice system, as even though justice is preferred to be blind, it isn’t most of the time, for judges generally look more favorably on people with the same color as them. This is seen very well in Sapolsky’s description of the justice system, in which: “the more stereotypically African a black individual’s facial features, the longer the sentence. In contrast, juries view black (but not white) male defendants more favorably if they’re wearing big, clunky glasses; some defense attorneys even exploit this ‘nerd defense’ by accessorizing their clients with fake glasses” (87). On another level, which is also quite obvious, “We’re more likely to vote for attractive people or hire them, less likely to convict them of crimes, and, if they are convicted, more likely to dole out shorter sentences,” as our bias as a species suggests that those who are good-looking should be good-people, which is, of course, very inaccurate (88). Sapolsky then talks about interceptive information (when a person’s behavior is modified due to the stimuli from their body) and the way language can affect the unconscious mind (Sapolsky mentions framing as described by David Kahneman and Amos Tversky).
When it comes to how behavior is determined “Hours to Days Before,” Sapolsky focuses heavily on hormones, as the first thing he discusses is testosterone, as it has a positive correlation with aggression. Testosterone isn’t guaranteed to always increase the magnitude of a person’s aggression, though, as the social situation is also vital - “testosterone increases amygdala response to angry faces, but not to other sorts. Thus, if the amygdala is already responding to some kind of social learning, testosterone ups the volume” (104-105). Oxycontin is then described, which makes it easier for people to detect emotion on people’s faces, as well as making humans more generous to one another, as well as increasing the desire to be approved socially. Or as Sapolsky himself describes, “So oxytocin elicits prosocial behavior, and oxytocin is released when we experience prosocial behavior (being trusted in a game, receiving a warm touch, and so on) … Pour them [oxytocin and vasopressin] into the water supply, and people will be more charitable, trusting, and empathic” (113). While the first sentence is accurate, the second isn’t, as when people get easier at reading emotions, they might not use it to do good, but to manipulate others. Furthermore, while oxytocin does increase cooperation, it is only with those whom the recipient knows. On the other hand, “When playing against strangers, oxytocin decreases cooperation, enhances envy when luck is bad, and enhances gloating when it’s good” (116). To elaborate even further, Oxytocin “makes us more prosocial to Us and worse with everyone else,” showing that it is the embodiment of “ethnocentrism and xenophobia,” both of which are very undesirable traits of the human species (116-117). After discussing testosterone and oxytocin, Sapolsky moves on to female aggression, which manifests itself in many ways, though one of the most famous is maternal aggression. This isn’t present just for humans - many animals which take care of their young (ex. bears), are extremely aggressive when they perceive something as posing a threat to their young. It is often said that the worst place a person can be in is when they are between a bear and her cub, as if the cub whimpers or squeaks, the mother is very likely to savage the supposed malefactor of her offspring. As Sapolsky himself dictates, “During late pregnancy, estrogen and progesterone increase maternal aggression by increasing oxytocin release in certain brain regions, bringing us back to oxytocin promoting maternal aggression” (118). While Sapolsky concedes that estrogen does cause aggression, it can also decrease aggression in select cases, as there are two receptors for estrogen in the brain, which means that the “same hormone, same levels” could have “different outcome[s] if the brain is set up to respond differently” (118). Sapolsky then talks about premenstrual syndrome (PMS), which is evident in “negative mood and irritability that come around the time of menstruation (along with the bloating of water retention, cramps, acne)” (121). PMS is severe enough in 2-5% of women to severely impact daily functioning, and Sapolsky supports the claim that it isn’t based solely on the environment (as was commonly believed), but on biology, seeing that other primates experience the same issue (including female baboons and female vervet monkeys). Sapolsky then discusses stress, saying that it does make evolutionary sense, as it alerts the recipient to the very real existence of a problem, which provides them with an incentive to do something about it. However, Sapolsky summarizes it very well when he states that stress damages health over long periods of time, as “The amygdala becomes overactive and more coupled to pathways of habitual behavior; it is easier to learn fear and harder to unlearn it” (136). Furthermore, because of the newfound importance of the amygdala, the possible performance of the frontal lobe is severely hindered, as seen in problems related to “working memory, impulse control, executive decision making, risk assessment, and task shifting” (136).
Sapolsky then moves on to “Days to Months Before,” in which he talks about brain plasticity. He begins by describing how cab drivers saw an increase in their hippocampus (which focuses on navigation) after working their job for a while, as well as how the human brain could recover from injuries. However, Sapolsky then talks about post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and describes that this terrible condition occurs when trauma occurs, which subsequently “enlarges the amygdala and atrophies the hippocampus” (152). Other organisms on Earth are also capable of suffering from PTSD, including dogs and elephants. Sapolsky then states that while the human brain is plastic and is capable of recovering from trauma, there are limits, as when people tend to get older, their brains are less likely to be able to recover from severe trauma. Sapolsky then describes that while skills can indeed be learned, talent cannot be ingrained through practice alone - practicing something for 10,000 hours will definitely improve your knowledge and skill in that specific area, but it won’t make you inherently good at it. For instance, if you practice basketball for 10,000 hours, the chance of your brain adjusting and turning you into a Lebron James is remarkably low. Sapolsky soon talks about adolescence, going so far as to name his chapter “Adolescence; Or, Dude, Where’s My Frontal Cortex?” As stated in the title, the frontal cortex’s of adolescents is not fully developed, which can lead to dumb decisions being made and excessive risk-taking. Sapolsky also illustrates on page 163 that adolescents are more capable of feeling dopamine than both children and adults, which makes the highs higher, the lows lower, which explains much of the excessive risk-taking, as “Adolescents update their estimates as adults do for good news, but feedback about bad news barely makes a dent” (161). Sapolsky then talks about another characteristic of adolescents - the desperate need to fit in. Neuroimaging supports the fact that “adolescents lack sufficient frontal forcefulness to effectively hand-wave about why it doesn’t matter,” which explains why teenagers spend a large portion of their time trying to conform to their peers - while their intellects are not as advanced as adults, which causes them to not know how to handle rejection as well as adults, they are not as simple as children either, which enables them to visualize and understand what they are missing when they do miss out. Sapolsky points out, quite interestingly, that “Adolescents have left behind children’s egalitarian tendency to split resources evenly … adolescents mostly make meritocratic decisions” (167). Sapolsky, when concluding the chapter, pays homage to the importance of EI (emotional intelligence) and social intelligence, stating how they “predict adult success and happiness better than do IQ or SAT scores. It’s all about social memory, emotional perspective taking, impulse control, empathy, ability to work with others, self-regulation” (172).
Sapolsky then discusses human physiological development as a whole. He begins with the sensorimotor stage (birth to 24 months), in which children (around 8 months) develop object permanence (just because you can’t see something doesn’t mean it isn’t there), moves on to the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), in which children can think symbolically and use intuitive reason (though this is severely limited, as children at this age range can’t attach causes to effects or utilize logic), discusses the concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years) in which kids learn to think logically (though this is still limited, as kids at this age range tend to take phrases literally when their meanings are purely figurative), and ends with the formal operational stage (adolescence to death), in which a person’s full mental capabilities are assumed (including abstraction, metacognition, reasoning). Sapolsky then talks about various kinds of reasoning and how they provide various answers to the same question, which is “Should I eat the cookie?” Preconventional reasoning involves children through ages 8 to 10, and this stage is only considered with rewards and punishments. Consequently, the answer to the question will be “Depends on whether or not I get caught and punished.” When it comes to conventional reasoning, the answer depends heavily upon what other people are likely to do. The answer to the question is likely to be “What will other people do in this scenario?” Finally, when it comes to postconventional reasoning, which is used by adolescents and adults, the answer doesn’t depend on any one main factor, but on the situation as a whole. Therefore, the answer to the cookie question will be “It depends on the situation. Can you elaborate further on the situation?”
Sapolsky then moves on to discuss the role of mothers in rearing their young, as well as the possible damage which will occur if they are absent. This is seen especially well in Harry Harlow’s experiment, in which he “would raise an infant rhesus monkey without a mother but with two ‘surrogates’ instead” (190). One surrogate will be cold and barren but have a bottle of milk attached to it, while the other had no milk but had cloth which simulated a real female monkey. Sapolsky then notes that most of the infant rhesus monkeys chose the surrogate which felt like a real mom, not the one which provided them nourishment, showing the importance of mothers to their children, as well as testifying to the intelligence of the monkeys involved in the experiment (which suffered from psychological trauma). The importance of mothers was seen in another instance, though this one occurred in human history on a much larger scale. In the 1980s, the Romanian Communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu “banned contraceptives and abortion for any women who had not yet given birth to five children,” which created a massive increase in poverty, which led to orphanages “filled with thousands of infants and kids abandoned by impoverished families” (201). In 1989, poverty and homelessness became such major issues that Ceausescu was overthrown and shot by a firing squad when he attempted to escape the country with a massive amount of embezzled money. The children who were left in orphanages and were largely neglected were “mostly what you’d expect. Low IQ and poor cognitive skills. Problems with forming attachments, often bordering on autistic. Anxiety and depression galore. The longer the institutionalization, the worse the prognosis” (201). Even worse, their brains were smaller, suffered from a lack of frontal cortical metabolism, and had little plasticity. The only part of the brain which was bigger in size than normal children was the amygdala, which, as stated before, produces aggression in response to fear. Or as Sapolsky said it, “That pretty much says it all” (201). Sapolsky moves on to discuss how the environment affects development, and he provides this harrowing statistic to illustrate his point: “Childhood abuse … causes epigenetic changes in hundreds of genes in the human hippocampus. Moreover … mothering style in monkeys has epigenetic effects on more than a thousand frontocortical genes” (221).
Personal thoughts:
Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst by Robert Sapolsky is a fantastic, detailed, engrossing read of the human condition. Sapolsky goes over the importance of the environment, genetics, and hormones in regards to humanity’s history and culture to clearly illustrate that countless factors, almost all of them outside of our control (ex. genes and the environment we’re born into), have influenced human nature. While this book is pretty thick, it is highly enjoyable, which makes it worth reading. I highly recommend this book to people interested in science, psychology, anatomy, history, and social science.
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