Summary of "A Short History of Chinese Philosophy: A Systematic Account of Chinese Thought From Its

A Short History of Chinese Philosophy: A Systematic Account of Chinese Thought From Its Origins to the Present Day is a book published in 1948 by Fung Yu-Lan, a philosopher. A detailed, organized, and systematic book, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy is an excellent read for those interested in the history of Chinese schools of thought and the trends of certain ideas.

The book begins with an editor’s introduction (written in 1948), in which the editor (Derk Bodde) provides an excellent overview of Chinese history and philosophy: China’s history of monarchy was said to have begun with sage-kings who supposedly ruled near the end of the third millennium B.C. China’s first dynasty, the Hsia (2205-1766 B.C.) is reputed to have existed, though as of the current moment there’s inadequate evidence. The Shang dynasty supposedly lasted from 1766-1123 B.C. and saw the origins of the use of tortoise shells in divination. Then there’s the Chou dynasty (1122-256 B.C.): “we have abundant historical records, and the Chou is also the golden age of Chinese philosophy. During its early centuries, a large number of small states, most of them grouped around the valley of the Yellow River in North China, were linked together through common ties of allegiance to the Chou royal house is a feudal system roughly analogous to that of medieval Europe. As time wore on, however, this feudal system gradually disintegrated, resulting in the eclipse of the Chou royal power, the steady increase of bitter warfare between the now independent states, and other violent political, social, and economic upheavals. It was men’s efforts to find answers to the resulting pressing problems that confronted them, that caused the appearance of the first Chinese organized philosophical thought, which constitutes the cultural glory of the age. Confucius (551-479 B.C.) was the earliest of these philosophers, and was followed by a host of others belonging to widely differing schools of thought.” (xiv-v). The first truly unified Chinese empire/dynasty was seen in the Ch’in dynasty (it’s quite possible “China” was named after this); the dynasty began in 221 B.C. when the Ch’in defeated rival kingdoms and assimilated many people into its fold. Bodde states that this was one of the biggest monumental changes in China’s history (one of the others being the creation of the Chinese Republic in 1912). However, while the Ch’in dynasty has done a stupendous feat by unifying a massive area, they were obsessed with enforcing rules and suppressing other thoughts, causing them to collapse soon after only to be replaced by the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220). The Han Dynasty, learning from the mistakes of the Ch’in, didn't censor various philosophies. Their reign consequently lasted more than 400 years, but eventually came to an end as well: when that happened, the Period of Disunity (221-589 A.D.) began, causing China to see sporadic and unstable dynasties in the south and north. The Period of Disunity is frequently viewed as a Dark Age for China, though it saw the emergence of philosophers like Neo-Taoism and Buddhism. After the Period of Disunity came the Sui Dynasty (590-617 A.D.) and the Tang Dynasty (618-906 A.D.). Buddhism reached its peak under the Tang Dynasty, only to decline afterward when Confucianism became ever more popular. When the Tang Dynasty collapsed, there were five decades of infighting before the Sung Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) arose: it was noted that although it was politically weaker than the former, it was just as creative culturally, seen in how Neo-Confucianism arose in this time period. The Yüan Dynasty (1280-1367 A.D.) saw the rule of China by the Mongols: although the Mongols were extremely capable conquerors, they didn't focus on culture, making that period unimportant when it comes to thought. When the Yüan Dynasty collapsed (due to the Black Death), the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643 A.D.) arose, which “restored the country to Chinese rule, but though it was a pleasant period in which to live, it contributed little to culture that was radically new. In philosophy, however, it was notable as the dynasty under which the school in Neo-Confucianism known as that of Universal Mind reached its culmination.” (xvi). The Ch’ing Dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.) was the last monarchy of China, and like the Yüan, was governed by foreigners (the Manchus). The Ch’ing Dynasty collapsed due to modernization: China was too slow to enact changes dealing with foreign influence and technological advancement, causing it to drastically weaken. When the pattern of dynasties dissipated, there were many social upheavals as vast changes were made. Bodde ends his introduction with the following sentences: “in China the future looks dark and uncertain. Yet Chinese history shows us that repeatedly in the past, though often at untold cost in human suffering, the Chinese have succeeded in surmounting and recuperating from the crises that have faced them. They can do so again, but only provided that the world as a whole learns quickly to accept the same cosmopolitanism that has been prominent in much of Chinese political thinking … In the changes that China is yet to make, a good deal of her past ideology must inevitably be discarded. Some of it, however, will survive as a permanent contribution to future world philosophy.” (xvii).

Yu-Lan begins his book by writing that philosophy was pivotal in Chinese civilization: the first education men (not women due to the patriarchy) would receive is philosophy. Four classics, the “Four Books,” were composed of the Confucian Analects, the Book of Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The “Four Books” were Neo-Confucianist in nature, and was also related to the Three Characters Classic, a text which would be given to children to read due to the said three characters producing a rhythm, hastening the process of memorization. Yu-Lan maintains that Chinese philosophy is frequently misinterpreted by people as religion: while it’s true it makes up the cultural background of China, it is not religious in the traditional sense, seeing a complete absence of an afterlife. Furthermore, Chinese philosophy is quite applicable, seeing that philosophers like Confucius encouraged people to practice ethics in their everyday lives. Yu-Lan says that most religions have a philosophical backbone, seeing how rituals and repetitive dogmas reveal the attitude of the practitioners of the religion towards life. It is frequently said that there are three main belief systems in China: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. As stated before, Yu-Lan maintains that beliefs like Confucianism and Taoism aren’t religions, seeing their large lack of supernatural elements. Taoism is made up of two schools: the Tao chia (Taoist school) and the Tao chiao (Taoist religion). Although they both come from Taoism, they contradict each other: “Taoism as a philosophy teaches the doctrine of following nature, while Taoism as a religion teaches the doctrine of working against nature. For instance, according to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, life followed by death is the course of nature, and man should follow this natural course calmly. But the main teaching of the Taoist religion is the principle and technique of how to avoid death, which is expressly working against nature. The Taoist religion has the spirit of science, which is the conquering of nature. If one is interested in the history of Chinese science, the writings of the religious Taoists will supply much information.” (3). Buddhism, like Taoism, has its philosophical and religious subsections: Fo hsüeh (Buddhist learning) and Fo chiao (Buddhist religion) are prominent. All three of these belief systems have something in common: as a professor noted, for much of Chinese history the people of China focused on applicable ethics, not obscure religious worship or dependence on a clergy. Yu-Lan maintains that although the Chinese substituted philosophy for religion, they still were subject to the same psychological impulses that people felt: they longed for a better future, causing them to try to practice the virtues that were taught to them. Yu-Lan then discusses super-moral values: these values are above regular ones as they hold high the concept of a deity. In his own words, “Some people may be inclined to call this kind of value a religious value. But in my opinion, this value is not confined to religion, unless what is meant here by religion differs from its meaning as described above. For instance, the love of God in Christianity is a religious value, while the love of God in the philosophy of Spinoza is not, because what Spinoza called God is really the universe. Strictly speaking, the love of God in Christianity is not really super-moral. This is because God, in Christianity, is a personality, and consequently the love of God by man is comparable to the love of a father by his son, which is a moral value … It is a quasi super-moral value, while the love of God in the philosophy of Spinoza is a real super-moral value.” (4). Chinese philosophy largely focuses on self-improvement and an increase in self-knowledge, not the collection of mere facts. Yu-Lan predicts that religion will largely be replaced with philosophy: those who practice philosophy are less prone to fanaticism (after all, when was the last time you heard utilitarians, Spinozians, and Aristotelians slaughtering members of a different philosophical school?).

Chinese philosophy states that the highest station a person can achieve in life is to become a sage (who frequently withdraw themselves from the world, as they found inner peace by extinguishing most of their desires). The Taoists, Buddhists, and Platonists have all cursed earthly existence, seeing that they viewed the body as a prison for a person’s soul - due to their scorn for the present, philosophies following this attitude are given the adjective “otherworldly.” On the contrary, “this-worldly” philosophies are philosophies that are applicable, encapsulated best when Confucius quipped, “Not yet understanding life, how can you understand death?” Thus, this-worldly philosophies view the best circumstance for a human to be honorable in nature. Overall, Chinese philosophies like Neo-Confucianism serve to be both otherworldly and this-worldly, causing a good person to be largely viewed as one who does good actions while thinking of the future. “the Chinese sage is not one who does not concern himself with the business of the world. His character is described as one of ‘sageliness within and kingliness without.’ That is to say, in his inner sageliness, he accomplishes spiritual cultivation; in his kingliness without, he functions in society … The saying ‘sageliness within and kingliness without’ means only that he who has the noblest spirit should, theoretically, be king. As to whether he actually has or has not the chance of being king, that is immaterial … the task of philosophy is to enable man to develop this kind of character.” (8). As expected, the ideal character for a person should be one that isn’t power-hungry: a classic story went that the people wanted to make a sage a king, but he was unwilling to do so due to the power involved, and fled into a cave before being smoked out and subsequently taking control of the situation for the sake of the people. Yu-Lan determines that people who learn Chinese philosophy may encounter two issues: the language and the prose. When it comes to them both, Chinese philosophy is frequently short yet meaningful and clear: this is excellently demonstrated in the Dao De Jing by the famed philosopher Lao Tzu. Although it provides an excellent overview of Taoism, it was only five thousand words long, clearly illustrating its succinctness. Adding to the terseness is a sense of disconnection: Yu-Lan describes that Chinese philosophical words were not strictly formal, as there were no professional philosophers (though later on in dynasties there were interpreters of philosophers). Furthermore, most philosophers in China didn't publish works, and those that did see their works go into print frequently did so unexpectedly: their private letters and contemplations were compiled together to form a book. Chinese philosophers frequently use aphorisms to get a point across quickly, and when they are not being detailed enough, it may be due to their desire for suggestiveness, seeing how much could be left for the reader to imagine. As Yu-Lan put it, “Suggestiveness, not articulateness, is the ideal of all Chinese art, whether it be poetry, painting, or anything else. In poetry, what the poet intends to communicate is often not what is directly said in the poetry, but what is not said in it. According to Chinese literary tradition, in good poetry ‘the number of words is limited, but the ideas it suggests is limitless.’” (12). A fantastic anecdote demonstrating this is when an official asked a philosopher the difference between Lao-Chuang (Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu) and Confucius. The philosopher answered briefly in the form of a question: “Are they not the same?” This pleased the official, causing him to appoint the philosopher to be his secretary. The suggestiveness of Chinese philosophy can be weakened or even misinterpreted, seen in how they were originally written in Chinese characters: “Because of the suggestive character of Chinese philosophical writings, the language barrier becomes even more formidable. The suggestiveness of the sayings and writings of the Chinese philosophers is something that can hardly be translated. When one reads them in translation, one misses the suggestiveness; and this means that one misses a great deal. A translation, after all, is only an interpretation.” (14). Yu-Lan gives the context and historical background for Chinese philosophy, seeing how people, ideas, and nations are shaped by the worlds they find themselves in. When it comes to China, it is a continental country, as it is a very large landmass mostly unbroken by sources of water. This caused it to be known as “all within the four seas” as well as “all beneath the sky,” creating a sense of unity, seeing the seemingly united area. Few Chinese philosophers traveled extensively (ex. across the ocean): Confucius only mentioned the sea once. This immediately differentiates Chinese philosophers from those of other nations (especially the Greeks), seeing that certain areas saw its citizens doing much traveling (ex. island hopping). Chinese society focused heavily on agriculture (especially rice farming): “Even today the portion of the Chinese population engaged in farming is estimated at 75 to 80 percent. In an agrarian country land is the primary basis of wealth. Hence, throughout Chinese history, social and economic thinking and policy have centered around the utilization and distribution of land.” (17). Of course, today most Chinese people don’t labor in agriculture as a profession. However, certain attitudes are still prevalent: “the root” in Chinese society denotes agriculture while “the branch” means commerce. While farmers were viewed with some degree of high esteem, those who were involved with commerce (the best example being merchants) were seen with scorn, as they produce nothing while charging money for the goods that others created with their labor (think of Wall Street today - Wall Street traders can make a massive amount of money by impoverishing others, not-mentioning that they create nothing themselves - they are parasites). There were four classes in China: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Said scholars were frequently landlords, and viewed the farmers as innocent children who could be depended on due to their lack of selfishness. As for the merchants, they deplored them due to how they were opportunists.

Lao Tzu’s belief of Taoism has helped the Chinese historically: the Book of Changes states that when something leaves, its opposite will take its place, and vice-versa. The Chinese people, “Convinced of this theory … remain cautious even in time[s] of prosperity, and hopeful even in time[s] of extreme danger. In the late war, the concept provided the Chinese people with a sort of psychological weapon, so that even in its darkest period, most people lived in the hope which was expressed in the phrase: ‘The dawn will soon come.’ It was this ‘will to believe’ that helped the Chinese people to go through the war.” (19-20). Another concept of Taoism (and Confucianism) is the importance of refraining from going overboard by overdoing things: it’s better to mess up by doing too little than doing too much, as they saw that the latter was utterly self-defeating, seeing how one is digging one’s grave. The Taoists idealized nature: they thought that life before sedentary civilization was blissful. They also loved the innocence of children while despising knowledge, as they viewed everything man-made as the cause of suffering, and everything from nature as the cause of happiness (which is contradictory when viewed from a scientific angle: humans came from nature, as we are still animals. Therefore, we are still in nature, though we may find it difficult to recognize at times). The reason the Chinese focus heavily on family is due to the agrarian nature of the nation: most people perform the same profession of their predecessors. “The family system was the social system of China. Out of the five traditional social relationships, which are those between sovereign and subject, father and son, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend, three are family relationships. The remaining two, though not family relationships, can be conceived of in terms of the family. Thus the relationship between sovereign and subject can be conceived of in terms of that between father and son, and that between friend and friend in terms of the one between elder and younger brother … But these are only the major family relationships … In the Erh Ya, which is the oldest dictionary of the Chinese language, dating from before the Christian era, there are more than one hundred terms for various family relationships, most of which have no equivalent in the English language.” (21). Ancestor worship was prevalent in China, seeing how ancestors represented the unity of the said family. Thus Confucianism can be seen as a rational justification for the way things worked in China. Overall, Confucianism focuses on everyday affairs and proper conduct while Taoism pays much attention to spontaneous behavior. To put it in another way, Confucianists stay within society while Taoists frequently leave it. Confucianism and Taoism both recognized the importance of the other, and made moves to become more similar, causing Neo-Taoism and Neo-Confucianism to come into existence. Yu-Lan describes that most of the artistic masterpieces of China focused on nature and natural landscapes, seeing the concept of Tao, the force which supposedly makes up everything, including nature and humanity. Yu-Lan describes that the Greeks, due to their reliance on movement and merchant ships, formed the philosophies they accepted. In his own words, “The Greeks lived in a maritime country and maintained their prosperity through commerce. They were primarily merchants. And what merchants have to deal with first are the abstract numbers used in their commercial accounts, and only then with concrete things that may be immediately apprehended through these numbers … concepts by postulation … Greek philosophers … developed mathematics and mathematical reasoning. That is why they had epistemological problems and why their language was so articulate. But merchants are also townsmen. Their activities demand that they live together in towns. Hence they have a form of social organization not based on the common interest of the family so much as on that of the town. This is the reason why the Greeks organized their society around the city state, in contrast with the Chinese social system, which may be called that of the family state, because under it the state is conceived of in terms of the family. In a city state the social organization is not autocratic, because among the same class of townsmen, there is no moral reason why one should be more important than, or superior to, another. But in a family state the social organization is autocratic and hierarchic, because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son.” (25-6). The geography of China also explains why there was no industrial revolution: the farmers were happy with the way things were and didn't like change, as it was quite possible that their ancestors had lived a certain lifestyle for centuries. This is shown in the following story: a craftsman was able to create a beautiful piece of jade that was identical to that of a leaf after three years of effort. When a philosopher (Lieh Tzu) saw it, he noted that if all the trees followed his example - requiring three years to produce leaves - many people would be in trouble. This clearly demonstrates that not only farmers but a wide variety of people in China had a fierce love for what they viewed as natural phenomena while being distrustful of artificial goods, a viewpoint that would drastically affect China’s future in the era of colonization and trade.

The first Chinese schools of thought was the Yin-Yang chia (Yin-Yang school): these two elements are said to be mirror opposites and to make up the universe. While the Yin represents the female aspect, the Yang represents the male. The second school is the “Ju chia” (School of Literati), seeing how “ju” means “literatus”/scholar. The third school is “Mo chia” (Mohist school), who practiced discipline. The fourth school is the “Ming chia” (School of Names) that was composed of individuals interested in the relationship between words and reality, seeing how the former is technically supposed to represent the latter. The fifth school was the “Fa chia” (Legalist school), seeing how “fa” meant “law” in Chinese. The people who were in the Legalist school believed that morals were inadequate to maintain order, and that laws were needed to ensure stability. The sixth school is the “Tao-Te Chia” (School of the Way and its Power). This school focused on analyzing the metaphysics of the Tao (also denoted as the “Way”) and the “Te” (how the Tao expresses itself in human beings) - “The followers of this school centered their metaphysics and social philosophy around the concept of Non-being, which is the Tao or Way, and its concentration in the individual as the natural virtue of man, which is Te, translated as ‘virtue’ but better rendered as the ‘power’ that inheres in any individual thing. This group, called by Ssu-ma T’an the Tao-Te school, was later known simply as the Tao chia, and is referred to in Western literature as the Taoist school.” (31). Some notable historians of Chinese philosophy include Ssuma T’an, who documented the six schools, and Liu Hsin, who focused heavily on the origins and contextualization of each individual school. That is, Liu Hsin stated that those in the Ju school came from the Ministry of Education, the Taoists were made up of historians, the Yin-Yang school was composed of astronomers, the Legalist school of officials in the Ministry of Justice, those in the School of Names were from the Ministry of Ceremonies, and those from the Mohists from the Guardians of the Temple, those from the Diplomatist school from the Ministry of Embassies, the individuals from the Eclectic school arrived from the Councillors, the members of the Agricultural school were comprised of the Ministry of Soil and Grain, and those in the School of Story Tellers came from the Petty Offices. Yu-Lan writes himself, “Members of the Ju school had their origin in the literati. Members of the Mohist school had their origin in the knights. Members of the Taoist school had their origin in the hermits. Members of the School of Names had their origin in the debaters. Members of the Yin-Yang school had their origin in the practitioners of occult arts. Members of the Legalist school had their origin in the ‘men of methods.’” (37). Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in Lu, which is located in the southern part of the present-day Shantung province which is correspondingly located in eastern China. His ancestors were nobles, but the tumultuousness of politics caused his family to become everyday people. Confucius was said to have arrived at a coveted government position by the time he was fifty, but was banished when he was suspected of a crime. Confucius was notable in that he had many students: many of his students became famous themselves. As expected, Confucius was a member of the ju school - he was a conservative who wanted tradition to be upheld, seen in his dedication to the Six Classics. Confucius made it clear that he was a transmitter of messages, not an original or even free thinker: he stated that upon the death of a parent, a child, regardless of age, should mourn for three years, seeing how they were utterly helpless for the first three years of their life and needed to express their gratitude. Confucianists desired titles and names to organize society. To do this, they needed to be as accurate as possible when it came to bestowing names upon various people: this was known as the rectification of names. The rectification of names extended not only to family members, but to rulers as well, and every name and title in society should have its corresponding standard to keep civilization intact. Confucius urges for what he deems “yi,” or “righteousness.” Said righteousness includes moral behavior, which is a direct contradiction to “li,” which means “profit.” Confucius also advocates for “jen,” or “human-heartedness.” As may be expected, this denotes kindness: those who practice jen try to love others. The concept of jen is largely determined by the Golden Rule. As was noted in the Ta hsüeh (Great Learning), “a chapter of the Li Chi (Book of Rites), a collection of treatises written by the Confucianists in the third and second centuries B.C., it is said: ‘Do not use what you dislike in your superiors in the employment of your inferiors. Do not use what you dislike in your inferiors in the service of your superiors. Do not use what you dislike in those who are before, to precede those who are behind. Do not use what you dislike in those who are behind, to follow those who are before. Do not use what you dislike on the right, to display toward the left. Do not use what you dislike on the left, to display toward the right. This is called the principle of applying a measuring square.’” (43). There is also the existence of chung and shu: “Thus the practice of jen consists in consideration for others. ‘Desiring to sustain oneself, one sustains others; desiring to develop oneself, one develops others.’ In other words: ‘Do to others what you wish yourself.’ This is the positive aspect of the practice, which was called by Confucius chung or ‘conscientiousness to others.’ And the negative aspect, which was called by Confucius shu or ‘altruism,’ is: ‘Do not do to others what you do not wish yourself.’ The practice as a whole is called the principle of chung and shu, which is ‘the way to practice jen.’” (43).

The concept of “Ming” involves doing good deeds despite knowing that one’s ultimately doomed to fail: Confucius himself lived in an age of intense violence. However, he still wanted to improve the world, hence his traveling a lot and teaching students - he did these things not in spite of knowing he would fail, but because he knew he would, seeing that if one focuses only on the results, action can be prevented from occurring. “He traveled everywhere and, like Socrates, talked to everybody. Although his efforts were in vain, he was never disappointed. He knew that he could not succeed, but kept on trying … He tried his best, but the issue he left to Ming. Ming is often translated as Fate, Destiny or Decree. To Confucius, it meant the Decree of Heaven or Will of Heaven … In later Confucianism, however, Ming simply means the total existent conditions and forces of the whole universe. For the external success of our activity, the cooperation of these conditions is always needed. But for us to do is simply to try to carry out what we know we ought to carry out, without carrying whether in the process we succeed or fail.” (45). Confucius states that those who desire to be good people should acquaint themselves with Ming, as being good requires a certain degree of awareness of the world: “Thus to know Ming means to acknowledge the inevitability of the world as it exists, and so to disregard one’s external success or failure. If we can act in this way, we can, in a sense, never fail. For if we do our duty, that duty through our very act is morally done, regardless of the external success of our action. As a result, we always shall be free from anxiety as to success or fear as to failure, and so shall be happy. This is why Confucius said: ‘The wise are free from doubts; the virtuous from anxiety; the brave from fear.’” (45). Confucius states that moral development is of the utmost importance, and that it’s a constant process: he spent all his life trying to improve himself. Confucius, like Socrates, viewed himself as tasked with a divine mission. His reputation varied significantly in history: while for many centuries he was viewed with utter reverence, in the twentieth century his name declined significantly in reputation, only to improve and to become more stable, seeing how Yu-Lan says that he is now acknowledged as a wise, though still flawed, teacher. Mo Tzu was an opponent of Confucius who founded the Mohist school: unlike Confucius, he was no traditionalist, seeing how he disliked and spoke against past customs. The Mohists included knights from various kingdoms, and they participated militarily in certain battles (ex. the defense of the Sung province). When it came to his defense of the Sung province, Mo Tzu went to the king who was going to lay siege and demonstrated that his weapons were inadequate, also informing him that he has three-hundred followers who will fiercely fight. This caused the opposing king to desist from calling an assault. Yu-Lan states that the Mohists didn't fear death and were originally composed of soldiers: unlike regular soldiers, however, they tried to fight only defensive wars, as they loathed aggression. Furthermore, the conduct of the Mohists was quite flexible, seeing how Mo Tzu desired open-mindedness, so long as rational justifications can be found for the tactics used to secure victory. Mo Tzu critiqued Confucianism by saying that the Confucianists didn't believe in deities or supernatural entities, that the three years of mourning is a massive waste of resources, that music isn’t that important, and that the Confucian idea of Ming can be read as determinism, which can subsequently strip people of their motivation and drive for the betterment of society. Mo Tzu also criticized Confucianism on class grounds, seeing how the rich were likelier to be able to afford ceremonies and music, as well as abandoning the beliefs of supernatural entities: regular people had trouble paying for certain rituals and generally still believed in all manners of supernatural phenomena. Mo Tzu calls for “all-embracing love”: he said that any kind of discrimination was stupid and harmful, seeing how viewing others as somehow inferior to oneself is the cause of many of the world’s problems, including wars. He then states the importance of motivation: wars and other calamities mostly occur not due to altruism, but out of hatred, greed, and wrath. Mo Tzu clarifies that terrible events benefit no one, which is why it is so important to cooperate, love each other, and treat the other person as one’s own family. This can also be extended by viewing the whole world as shared by each other, seeing how people would be quite wary of attacking property they view as their own and people they think of as their brethren. To encourage people to practice human-heartedness, Mo Tzu states that loving others will cause them to love one in turn, and that hating or doing harm to others will incur the same result. He also invokes the names of deities to encourage people to do good, as karma is quite an effective concept to reinforce obedience. The Mohists had a Hobbesian opinion of the world: they said that before the existence of states, people had their own standards, which was a massive problem due to the potentially resulting disorder. Therefore, he encourages the leader of a state to have total power, “For the state was created precisely in order to end the disorder which had existed owing to the confused standards of right and wrong. The state’s primary function, therefore, is, quoting Mo Tzu, ‘to unify the standards.’ … No other standards can be tolerated, because if there were such, people would speedily return to ‘the state of nature’ in which there could be nothing but disorder and chaos.” (59). To reiterate, Mo Tzu’s standard of what’s right and what’s wrong is that all-embracing love is the supreme good while discrimination is the worst wrong - “Through appeal to this political sanction, together with his religious one, Mo Tzu hoped to bring all people of the world to practice his principle of all-embracing love.” (59). Yu-Lan notes that all those who knew Mo Tzu claimed that he practiced what he preached.

Taoism at its core is a rejectionist philosophy: its core tenet is that the world is so depraved and harsh that the best a person can do is to maintain their personal integrity, standards, and peace - their personal purity, if you will. Therefore, the Taoists spent much time in nature, in which they spent much time thinking of the nature of existence. The first potential Taoist was a person named Yang Chu: he lived between Mo Tzu (479-381 B.C.) and Mencius (371--289 B.C.). Yang Chu states that every person should focus solely on themselves to maintain their personal purity, seen excellently in his quote that the Taoist “for the great profit of the whole world, would not exchange one hair of his shank.” The basic essence of the quote is that although a hair is indeed small, it is still a part of your body, making it unethical to throw away: it was believed by Yang Chu that if everyone practiced the aforementioned quote, the world would be a much better place, as people wouldn’t harm and compete with each other for petty reasons. The Taoists maintain that life is valuable and should be treasured: one should not exchange it even for a kingdom. After all, if one loses worldly goods, they can reclaim them later on. However, if one loses their life, they will never regain it. Taoism calls for its adherents to live a minimal lifestyle, seeing that little is needed for survival, and to try to be useless, as useful people are frequently exploited by others for their talents, which can exhaust them, ending in their undoing and the disturbing of their spirit. Yang Chu said that people should see things from the big picture in order to find a sense of inner peace, as they will know that they’re insignificant: even if they do make mistakes, the universe will be almost completely unaffected. The Taoists called for people to be in the middle of doing good and doing evil: that is, doing nothing (or little). Mencius was an idealistic adherent of Confucianism who believed that humans were intrinsically good, seeing how almost all humans are capable of feeling sympathy and empathy. To be more specific, he states that all humans are born with the “four beginnings,” which, once developed, become “constant virtues.” “‘The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of human-heartedness. The feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and yielding is the beginning of propriety. The sense of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Man has these four beginnings, just as he has four limbs’” (70). Mencius states that the reason many people are immoral is that their four beginnings didn't develop due to the environment they were born into. The reason people should be virtuous is that their lower instincts belong to animals largely incapable of rationality and foresight: it would be an utter abomination if they were to throw their gift of reasoning into the gutters. Mencius advocates for compassion and love: however, he claimed that the Mohist method of equal universal love is impossible to implement, seeing how people naturally love their families, friends, and countrymen more than strangers. However, he doesn’t view this as a problem that is unsolvable: people should simply be capable of loving certain individuals to begin, and extend their circle of sympathy and friendship to more and more people as time goes on. Another key difference between the Mohists and the Confucianists was that the Confucianists believed that human-heartedness is an innate quality, while the Mohists view it as something that has to be added in an artificial manner. A third major disparity between both groups is that the Confucianists viewed the state as an entity that naturally exists, while the Mohists believed that it exists solely to maintain standards and to prevent anarchy and lunacy. Mencius, though a Confucianist, stated that rulers can be overthrown if they act unethically and irresponsibly, seeing that people need their actions to correspond with the titles they’re given. “Mencius also says: ‘The people are the most important element [in a state]; the spirits of the land and the grain are secondary; and the sovereign is the least.’” (74). Mencius also draws distinctions between methods of ruling: pa governments are those that use physical coercion to enforce obedience, while wang systems focus on education and morality to ensure stability. Mencius tellingly notes, “‘He who uses force in the place of virtue is a pa. He who is virtuous and practices human-heartedness is a wang. When one subdues men by force, they do not submit to him in their hearts but only outwardly, because they have insufficient strength to resist. But when one gains followers by virtue, they are pleased in their hearts and will submit of themselves as did the seventy disciples to Confucius.’” (74). From today’s vantage point wang governments can be seen as democracies and republics, while pa governments are best encapsulated in Fascism (Nazi Germany) and Communism (Stalinist Russia). Mencius calls for land to be organized into squares with nine equal sections for the sake of efficiency: “His ideal land system is what has been known as the ‘well-field system.’ According to this system, each square li (about one third of a mile) of land is to be divided into nine squares, each consisting of one hundred Chinese acres. The central square is known as the ‘public field,’ while the eight surrounding squares are the private land of eight farmers with their families, each family having one square. These farmers cultivate the public field collectively and their own fields individually. The produce of the public field goes to the government, while each family keeps for itself what it raises from its own field.” (75). Mencius calls for an attitude of cooperation and sympathy: he states that a good society is one in which every person accepts that they are no more entitled to happiness than others, and that they live under the same sky and on the same earth (people who identify themselves with others after looking at the big picture are known as “citizens of the sky”). Mencius and other Confucianists also view the universe as being a moral one, and they also believe in the “Great Morale,” a force within every human due to their shared nature (humans have the same structural anatomy) that connects them with the universe and calls for them to do good. Cultivating one’s Great Morale is doing good things regardless of the consequences and of being at peace with the world: people need to practice patience. This also ties directly to education, seeing how he believed that an ideal education was one that informed the common person of their relationships with others. Mencius states that people have potential, as he says that every person can do great things (in his case, become a sage), “if only he gives full development to his original nature. As Mencius affirms: ‘All men can become Yao or Shun [the two legendary sage-rulers previously mentioned].’ … Here is Mencius’ theory of education, which has been held by all Confucianists.” (79).

The Ming chia, as stated before, was mainly composed of debaters. A famous member of the School of Names, Teng Hsi, was such a skilled lawyer that he was able to turn seemingly decided cases completely around, from night to day. He did this by seeing the relativity of events and of the flexibility of the words used to describe a case. Hui Shih (350-260 B.C.) espoused that there were no absolutes, seeing the vast quantity of knowledge and information beyond one’s reach: he stated that there is infinitely more that we do not know than what little we could comprehend, seeing that the human mind has its limits, not-mentioning that the human lifespan is nothing compared to the age of the universe. Kung-sun Lung, another member of the School of Names, utilized sophistry to get his way: in one hilarious instance, he was stopped by some border guards, who told him that horses were not allowed to cross. He then maintained that his horse was a white horse: their language wasn’t specific enough to denote his white horse, seeing that a white horse is different from a mere horse due to its color. He then crossed the border. Lao Tzu was a famed advocate of Taoism who believed that the Tao is an unknowable, unnamable, universal force that is everything. He also believed that the universe’s intrinsic nature mandates that extreme events don’t last long, seeing that they quickly burn out their energy (ex. hurricanes). He also described that water, even if just a stream, can and will enact monumental change in the long-run due to its malleability and consistency. Yu-Lan hypothesizes that if Lao Tzu was asked if there were limits on the extremity of depth of certain situations, he would say no: “So far as human activities are concerned, the limit for the advancement of a man remains relative to his subjective feelings and objective circumstances. Isaac Newton, for example, felt that compared with the total universe, his knowledge of it was no more than the knowledge of the sea possessed by a boy who is playing at the seashore. With such a feeling as this, Newton, despite his already great achievements in physics, was still far from reaching the limits of advancement in his learning. If, however, a student, having just finished his textbook on physics, thinks that he then knows all there is to know about science, he certainly cannot make further advancement in his learning and will as certainly ‘revert back.’ Lao Tzu tells us: ‘If people of wealth and exalted position are arrogant, they abandon themselves to unavoidable ruin.’” (98). Lao Tzu states that there are “invariables,” or objective circumstances: one can know if they have surpassed a limit or not based on how they are feeling (ex. a glutton while eating a meal, a gamer who is playing a game for their sixth consecutive hour). Lao Tzu states that if a person wants to succeed in something, they should do its opposite, as he believed that opposites lead into each other in due time (ex. life and death). “The man who lives prudently must be meek, humble, and easily content. To be meek is the way to preserve your strength and to be strong. Humility is the direct opposite of arrogance, so that if arrogance is a sign that a man’s advancement has reached its extreme limit, humility is a contrary sign that that limit is far from reached. And to be content safeguards one from going too far, and therefore from reaching the extreme.” (99-100). Then there’s the Te, or what something naturally is, hence why Lao Tzu disliked Confucianism: he felt that artificial conduct wasn’t actually learned or appreciated. Overall, Lao Tzu, like the other Taoists, believed that people have lost their Te due to having too many wants and too much knowledge: “In satisfying their desires, people are seeking for happiness. But when they try to satisfy too many desires, they obtain an opposite result. Lao Tzu says: ‘The five colors blind the eye. The five notes dull the ear. The five tastes fatigue the mouth. Riding and hunting madden the mind. Rare treasures hinder right conduct.’ … Therefore, ‘there is no disaster greater than not knowing contentment with what one has; no greater sin than having desire for acquisition.’ … Lao Tzu emphasizes that people should have few desires.” (101). When it comes to knowledge, Lao Tzu said that people should have little due to how knowledge (and indeed, rationality) is frequently used by people to obtain what they want, causing them to forget what satisfaction feels like. When it comes to politics, Lao Tzu says an ideal ruler is one who doesn’t do anything, as he believes the problems from the world occur directly due to how many things are overdone. Therefore, ideal rulers should have few desires themselves and practice lactness: “‘Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, and the people will be benefited a hundredfold. Banish human-heartedness, discard righteousness, and the people will be dutiful and compassionate. Banish skill, discard profit, and thieves and robbers will disappear,’” “‘If the people never see such things as excite[d] desire, their mind will not be confused. Therefore the sage rules the people by emptying their minds, filling their bellies, weakening their wills, and toughening their sinews, ever making the people without knowledge and without desire.’” (102). In my opinion, the previous statements sounded like brainwashing, though it does make much sense: social media, for instance, has caused a dramatic increase in dissatisfaction, envy, and self-hatred due to the massive influx of information, seeing how many people enjoy themselves to a certain degree in certain moments. Once the sage ruler brings people back to the ideal state, they rule by inaction: like how the Tao doesn’t do anything yet still forms the world, good rulers could do good by doing little. The concept of yu in Taoism describes intentional ignorance: the difference between it and the innocence found in those ignorant of reality and young children is that it is deliberately willed and made after a conscious decision to do so. In Yu-Lan’s own words, “The yu of the sage is great wisdom, and not the yu of the child or of ordinary people. The latter kind of yu is a gift of nature, while that of the sage is an achievement of the spirit.” (103).

Chuang Tzu (369-286 B.C.) was a Taoist who inspired a book bearing his name to be published by a man named Kuo Hsiang. In the book, Tzu states that what is of nature is what is given to living organisms, while what people think of their own is actually beyond their control, which is quite ironic. Chuang Tzu says that governments shouldn’t exist, seeing how rules that may be beneficial to some may be deeply harmful to others, as no two individuals are alike (he says that government enforcing uniform rules is like treating another animal like a human - even if done out of goodwill, treating everyone the same is ultimately impractical and unrealistic). Chuang Tzu rules that emotions shouldn’t rule a person: even though they’re quite natural, when one is intemperate when it comes to them, they’re inflicting unnecessary suffering on themselves. That is, when Lao Tzu died, his friends were lamenting over him fiercely: what they should’ve done instead is to act like Lao Tzu, accepting death as a part of life and being grateful to have interacted with him to begin with. Furthermore, “A story about Chuang Tzu himself well illustrates this point. It is said that when Chuang Tzu’s wife died, his friend Hui Shih went to condole. To his amazement he found Chuang Tzu sitting on the ground, singing, and on asking him how he could be so unkind to his wife, was told by Chuang Tzu: ‘When she had just died, I could not help being affected. Soon, however, I examined the matter from the very beginning. At the very beginning, she was not living, having no form, nor even substance. But somehow or other there was then her substance, then her form, and then her life. Now by a further change, she has died. The whole process is like the sequence of the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. While she is thus lying in the great mansion of the universe, for me to go about weeping and wailing would be to proclaim myself ignorant of the natural laws. Therefore I stop.’ (Chuang-tzu, ch. 18). On this passage the great commentator Kuo Hsiang comments: ‘When ignorant, he felt sorry. When he understood, he was no longer affected. This teaches man to disperse emotion with reason.’” (109). The Taoists believed that sages, being wise individuals who completely accepted change, never acted out of wrath or sorrow, seeing that change was that - change. “This, however, does not mean that he lacks sensibility. Rather it means that he is not disturbed by the emotions, and enjoys what may be called ‘the peace of the soul.’ As Spinoza says: ‘The ignorant man is not only agitated by external causes in many ways, and never enjoys true peace in the soul, but lives also ignorant, as it were, both of God and of things, and as soon as he ceases to suffer, ceases also to be. On the other hand, the wise man, in so far as he is considered as such, is scarcely moved in his mind, but, being conscious by a certain eternal necessity of himself, of God, and things, never ceases to be, and always enjoys the peace of the soul.’” (109). Sages, being one with the Tao, possess no (or little) ego, and accept everything that happens to them with little complaint. To be such a sage, a person should try to see life from a large vantage point, accepting that everything comes to an end in due time and that worldly possessions, even if ardently defended, can and will still be lost. Chuang-tzu calls for people to identify themselves a part of the universe, as that’s technically true: even though they’re sentient, the matter they’re composed of is indeed a part of reality. Once they identify themselves as brief flashes in eternity, the chance that they’ll be incensed by their potentially changing luck will decrease significantly, which can be improved on over time by practice and introspection.

The “Mohist Canons” is a series of texts that are realistic in nature and try to classify knowledge as well as encouraging utilitarianism, seeing how one who desires to survive may be willing to give up a finger to keep their hand. They defended the concept of all-embracing love by utilizing dialectic to cast criminals as not being humans (of course, they were humans though). They also stated that loathing robbers in particular does not imply hating humanity as a whole, seeing how robbers are a threat to their potential victims: disliking them can mean concern for the majority of humanity, which is a good thing. Overall, the later Mohists focused heavily on epistemology and logic, as they did so more than any other school of China. When it comes to the Yin-Yang School, there are six classes of occult arts: (1) astrology, (2) almanacs, (3) the Five Elements, (4) divination, (5) miscellaneous divinations, and (6) the system of forms. Their astrology is stated to have twenty-eight constellations and to monitor the movements of the five planets, the sun, and the moon to predict luck. Almanacs are supposed to provide the times for events like equinoxes and solstices as well as processes like the four seasons. The Five Elements are said to have reach over everything and divination was frequently done using the milfoil plant, tortoise shells, and the shoulder bones of an ox. The system of forms involves burying a person, seeing how a place where a person is buried should appear to be in harmony with nature. The Five Elements are water, fire, wood, metal, and soil. It is stated by the occultists that water is supposed to moisten materials and to fall down, fire renders items aflame and climb up, wood is supposed to be crooked and makes things straight, metal yields and represents modification, and soil is to aid the process of sowing seeds and reaping crops. There are Five Functions: personal appearance, speech, vision, hearing, and thought. “‘Personal appearance should be decorous; speech should follow order; vision should be clear; hearing, distinct; thought, profound. Decorum produces solemnity; following order, regularity; clearness, intelligence; distinctness, deliberation; profundity, wisdom.’” (132). The “Grand Norm” provides various weather phenomena meaning in accordance with the ruler’s actions: “‘the madness of the sovereign will be followed by steady rain; his insolence, by steady sunshine; his idleness, by steady heat; his haste, by steady cold; his ignorance, by steady wind.’” (132). The role of the ruler of an area is extremely important when it comes to the weather, seeing how the Mandate of Heaven states that the conduct of a ruler has direct results on the length of their reign and even the quality of the lives of their people. The Yin-Yang school also had the “Monthly Commands,” which was an almanac that stated what people should do to maintain the order of the universe. The Monthly Commands made use of symbolism, seen in how elements such as fire and water were viewed as objects of great importance. Tsou Yen was a famous practitioner of the Yin-Yang school who supported the Mandate of Heaven, stating that history can be interpreted from a supernatural lense: rulers that abused their power were quickly overthrown, as signs from the heavens showed that they lost their authority to retain their position. Thus, the succession of dynasties is akin to that of seasons: it’s inevitable and natural. As stated before, this school relied heavily on the concepts of the Yin and Yang in order to explain the world: “the Yang and Yin came to be regarded as two cosmic principles or forces, respectively representing masculinity, activity, heat, brightness, dryness, hardness, etc., for the Yang, and femininity, passivity, cold, darkness, wetness, softness, etc., for the Yin. Through the interaction of these two primary principles, all phenomena of the universe are produced.” (138). In the Book of Changes the followers of the Yin-Yang school said that a combination of two out of eight trigrams can be used to predict the future.

Hsün Tzu was a Confucianist who believed, contrary to Mencius, that humans are intrinsically wicked: while one may expect his pessimism regarding human behavior to see itself in his philosophy, it is not so. That is, his philosophy said that since humans are intrinsically ill-natured, they should be educated and cultured to help them rise above their negative instincts - this gives value to their lives, as what they experience is what they accomplish. Like Mencius, Hsün Tzu says that people, through intentional effort, can achieve much, including becoming a sage. Yu-Lan writes of Hsün Tzu: “according to Hsün Tzu, man is not only born without any beginnings of goodness, but, on the contrary, has actual ‘beginnings’ of evilness. In the chapter titled ‘On the Evilness of Human Nature,’ Hsün Tzu tries to prove that man is born with inherent desire for profit and sensual pleasure. But, despite these beginnings of evilness, he asserts that man at the same time possesses intelligence, and that this intelligence makes it possible for him to become good … Thus whereas Mencius says that any man can become a Yao or Shun, because he is originally good, Hsün Tzu argues that any man can become a Yü [another Chinese sage] because he is originally intelligent.” (145). Hsün Tzu hypothesizes that society exists despite the original evil of people due to rules and customs which force people to prevent their animalistic instincts from getting the better of them. This directly ties into mutual cooperation, seeing how the division of labor in civilizations implies each person performing their duty and refraining from violence. Thus, social organization is needed for order: customs and laws are known in Chinese as li while morality is known as yi. Hsün Tzu focuses heavily on scarcity, as he writes that people desire the same things, leading them to become rare, and consequently fight over them, directly leading to much trouble and bloodshed. Hsün Tzu states that humans differentiate themselves from animals due to their li: for instance, humans were able to develop the concept of marriage (encapsulated by mutual loyalty), representing how they overrode their previous hindrances (ex. unfaithfulness). The Confucianists believed in utilizing both emotion and logic, as they believed they were the two main components of the human mind. For instance, “When our loved ones die, we know, through our intellect, that the dead are dead and that there is no rational ground for believing in the immortality of the soul. If we were to act solely under the direction of our intellect, therefore, we would need no mourning rites. But since our mind also has its emotional aspect, this causes us, when our loved ones die, to hope that the dead may live again and that there may be a soul that will continue existing in the other world. When we thus give way to our fancy, we take superstition as truth, and deny the judgment of our intellect. Thus there is a difference between what we know and what we hope. Knowledge is important, but we cannot live with knowledge only. We need emotional satisfaction as well.” (148). Hsün Tzu writes that ideal funerals are ones in which mourning is conducted, but in a careful and controlled manner, as people should be proud of the deceased for living the life they lived (if it was moral). The Confucianists also believed in the importance of music, as they viewed it as a productive way to express emotion. Hsün Tzu analyzed the logic of the Mohists and stated that all names are man-made and imaginary - their existence is solely for the sake of convenience. For instance, cats could be called dogs instead and dogs can be noted as cats; it is unwise to do so, however, seeing that people have already gotten used to calling cats cats and dogs dogs, not-mentioning that there is no advantage for making the change. Following this logic, Hsün Tzu writes that the people who abuse language and titles to serve themselves are criminals, as they intentionally deceive people. Hsün Tzu criticized the Mohists by writing that much of their logic is unsound, seeing that if one kills a robber, they technically killed a human. Secondly, he states that rules shouldn’t be counted as invalid due to the existence of key outliers, seeing that for the most part they are still technically true and correct. Third, he describes that names shouldn’t be overinterpreted or overanalyzed, as they’re there for the sake of the common people. Hsün Tzu lived during the Period of the Warring States, causing him to believe that the reason names are frequently abused and misinterpreted is due to the absence of a sage-king: he longed for unification. Two of his disciples, Li Ssu and Han Fei Tzu would play a major role in Chinese history, as Li Ssu became the prime minister of the first emperor of China (the Dragon Emperor) while Han Fei Tzu was a leader of the Legalist school which justified the Burning of the Books (many of the books Confucianist in nature) in 213 B.C.

When it came to Legalism, they believed that rules were required to prevent disorder, and that a totalitarian government may be needed: Legalists were known as “men of method” due to how “they developed methods for governing large areas; methods which left a high concentration of power in the person of the ruler, and which they boasted were foolproof. According to them, it was quite unnecessary that a ruler be a sage or superman. By faithfully applying their methods, a person of even merely average intelligence could govern, and govern well.” (157). Han Fei Tzu stressed innovation when it came to ruling, seeing how the birth rate had drastically gone up: this led to overpopulation, as resources were contended for, leading to conflict. The Legalists believed in strongly enforced laws: if rewards and punishments aren’t appropriately given, the laws become useless since no one will adhere to them. The Legalists were also strong believers that the ends justifies the means, seeing how completing one’s goal should be the main priority. Like Hsün Tzu, the Legalists had a low view of human nature, hence their harsh practices: “Han Fei Tzu, as a student of Hsün Tzu, was convinced that human nature is evil. But he differed from Hsün Tzu in that he was not interested in the latter’s stress on culture as a means of changing human nature so as to make it something good. According to him and other Legalists, it is precisely because human nature is what it is, that the Legalist way of government is practical. The Legalists proposed this way of government on the assumption that man is what he is, i.e., naturally evil, and not on the assumption that he is to be converted into what he ought to be.” (162). As expected, this caused the Legalists to be in sharp contrast with the Taoists and the Confucianists, seeing how the latter two had a much more positive view of human nature. When it comes to what an ideal ruler should be like from a Legalist perspective, they should be completely fair and impartial: they must punish those who broke the rules, even if they are their family and friends. “The Legalist way of government requires unselfishness and impartiality on the part of the ruler. He must punish those who ought to be punished, even though they be his friends and relatives, and he must reward those who ought to be rewarded, even though they be his enemies. If he fails only a few times to do this, the whole mechanism breaks down. Such requirements are too much for a man of only average intelligence. He who can really fulfill them is nothing less than a sage … In Legalist thought … there were no class distinctions. Everyone was equal before law and the ruler. Instead of elevating the common people to a higher standard of conduct, however, the Legalists lowered the nobles to a lower standard by discarding li and putting sole reliance on rewards and punishments for all alike. The Confucianist ideas are idealistic, while those of the Legalists are realistic. That is the reason why, in Chinese history, the Confucianists have always accused the Legalists of being mean and vulgar, while the Legalists have accused the Confucianists of being bookish and impractical.” (164-5).

Yu-Lan proceeds to discuss more of the Tao and of its omnipresence and of Confucian metaphysics. Hexagrams were a prevalent part of Confucianism, and they espoused main three ideas: whatever occurs in the world is due to prior events, everything continuously changes and decays over time (entropy), and there is no end to evolution. The Confucianists viewed the ideal society as one in which everyone practices their given roles while remaining satisfied with their lives, seeing the vitality of harmony and unity to maintain a community. When it comes to Chinese philosophy as a whole, it frequently tries to encapsulate all of reality: as stated before, for centuries the Chinese viewed China as all there was, causing some philosophers to call for the unification and maintenance of everything under Heaven (they believed that there was only China in the world). This attitude of the Chinese to see themselves as important is also seen in how they viewed other groups of people. To specify, the Chinese stated there were three kinds of people: the Chinese (“hua hsia”), barbarians (“yi ti”), and the beasts. Expectedly, “Of these, the Chinese are most cultured, the barbarians come next, and the beasts are completely uncultured.” (188). In Chinese history, when the Mongols ruled, they changed very little culturally, though they did pursue certain reforms (ex. procedures that checked for competency is bureaucratic positions). When it comes to Buddhism, Chinese citizens who liked it thought of India as the “pure land of the West” (“a realm transcending this world” - the over-idealized picture of India the Chinese had in their mind is clearly seen in Journey to the West) while those who disliked it thought of the Indians as a barbarian tribe. When the Europeans entered China and demonstrated their military resolve, a vast amount of Chinese citizens were shocked: they couldn’t’ve imagined another civilization that was not only equal to but mightier than they in certain regards (ex. trade and weapons). Tung Chung-Shu (179-104 B.C.) was a Confucian scholar who convinced the leaders of the Han Dynasty to make Confucianism the official belief of the dynasty, causing Confucianism to become prominent in society. This directly led to the civil service exams, which focused heavily on the Confucian classics and were notoriously difficult, in order to screen out the incompetent. Tung Chung-Shu believed that human nature may not be originally good, but that it wasn’t evil either, hence the importance of culture. He believed in the three kang, or three of the five major relationships in Confucianism: they are the relationship a ruler has with their subject, a husband’s relationship with his wife, and parents and their children. There are also the five ch’ang, which means “a norm or constant” - these five ideas composed Confucianism, and they are “namely, jen (human-heartedness), yi (righteousness), li (propriety, rituals, rules of proper conduct), chih (wisdom) and hsin (good faith) … the five virtues have their correlations in the Five Elements. Thus human-heartedness is correlated with Wood in the east; righteousness with Metal in the west; propriety with Fire in the south; wisdom with Water in the north; and good faith with Soil in the center. The five ch’ang are the virtues of an individual, and the three kang are the ethics of society. The compound word kang-ch’ang meant, in olden times, morality or moral laws in general. Man must develop his nature in the direction of the moral laws, which are the essentials of culture and civilization.” (197). Tung Chung-Shu stated that the four main methods the government uses to maintain order are beneficence, rewards, punishments, and executions (these four were modeled after the four seasons). Tung Chung-Shu also gave colors to the dynasties of the past, and believed that there were three periods of history: the first, “the sage of decay and disorder,” was the period of the Warring States when Confucius was still alive and teaching. The second period, the “Middle Kingdom,” was seen as one of approaching peace, seen in how Confucius supposedly caused important people to adopt his teachings. The third time period is supposedly one of “universal peace,” seeing how Confucius supposedly brought peace to not only China, but to foreign tribes as well (of course, it should be remembered that this didn't actually happen - Confucius, after teaching for many years, went back to his home province and died).

The Dragon Emperor’s attempt to put down rival thought was met with failure: although he put to death a large number of scholars and burned many books, there were many remnants, not-mentioning that the Ch’in Dynasty fell due to its brutality. Confucianism, as stated before, became extremely popular in the Han Dynasty. Although Legalism was viewed with scorn by many after the collapse of the Ch’in Dynasty, people had no choice but to turn to it to implement policies, seeing that pragmatism was urgently needed. Taoism remained present due to it offering consolation to those who didn't like society. Taoism later developed into Neo-Taoism: the adherents of this philosophy maintained that freeing oneself from civilization also includes forgetting that one has forgotten about knowledge. Although they were Taoists, they deeply admired Confucius. These Taoists also focused on the categories of doing something with action (yu-wei) and without action (wu-wei). As expected, wu-wei was preferred, seeing that progress occurs quicker when people are genuinely persuaded to do something. The Taoists thought of flattery and imitation as wrong due to how useless they are, how ineffective they are in procuring certain results, and how they harm people by encouraging them to feel dissatisfied with themselves, seeing how a major reason as to why people imitate the behavior of others is due to a sense of personal inadequacy and insecurity. The Taoists viewed happiness as when desire is temporarily satiated by procuring a certain result while freedom is being free of prejudices, fears, and desires for things - thus, sages are relatively unemotional, as they are not prone to mood swings. However, they do possess some emotions: as Wang Pi, described by Yu-Lan as the “greatest commentator on the Lao-tzu” said, the sage “has emotions but no ensnarement.” (238). The Taoists stated that people should act spontaneously, as they believed that that which is natural is good. The Taoists encouraged people to attempt to let go of their sexual urges, and to enjoy the beauty of the sexes without the sensual element: all they do is enjoy the aesthetic beauty of other individuals. Buddhism was said to have entered China during the reign of Emperor Ming (ruled from 58-75 A.D.) but it’s possible that it entered even before that. When Buddhism entered China, it underwent change, as the Chinese added Confucian and Taoist elements to it. Buddhism as a whole focuses on helping people break the cycle of reincarnation by entering a state of nirvana, or enlightenment - this includes them losing all their desires and being at peace with the world. Ch’anism is a philosophy that encourages being fine with not knowing certain things and of the importance of silence. Those who followed Ch’anism believed that yu-wei, while understandable, isn’t a good strategy for attaining enlightenment like Siddhartha Gautama, seeing how they believed that enlightenment cannot be forced. Thus, the best way to live is to fulfill one’s duties without intentional effort: things should simply be done in a state of flow and acceptance, seen in how they focused greatly on wu-wei and wu-hsin (no-mind). As a member of this school, Yi-hsüan, once said: “‘To achieve Buddhahood there is no place for deliberate effort. The only method is to carry on one’s ordinary and uneventful tasks: relieve one’s bowels, pass water, wear one’s clothes, eat one’s meals, and when tired, lie down. The simple fellow will laugh at you, but the wise will understand.’” (260). Following this line of thought, the Ch’anists believed that anyone can become a Buddha if they act consistently with little effort and genuinely believe in themselves - this is known as “cultivation through non-cultivation.” The Ch’anists stated that the difference between one of their number who does everyday tasks without thinking and an average person who does the same is self-awareness: it’s not simple to develop a non-purposeful mind devoid of attachment to results of certain matters. The Ch’anists viewed enlightenment as capable of happening suddenly: when a student is on the verge of enlightenment, their master should use the method of “stick or yell” (hit them suddenly with a stick or yell loudly) to push them into enlightenment: “The explanation would seem to be that the physical act, thus performed, shocks the student into that psychological awareness of enlightenment for which he has long been preparing. To describe Sudden Enlightenment, the Ch’an Masters use the metaphor of ‘the bottom of a tub falling out.’ When this happens, all its contents are suddenly gone. In the same way, when one is suddenly enlightened, he finds all his problems suddenly solved. They are solved not in the sense that he gains some positive solution for them, but in the sense that all the problems have ceased any longer to be problems.” (262). Unlike the Taoists, the Ch’anists believed that when a person reaches enlightenment, they should live out the rest of their lives in the way they are accustomed to before: the main difference enlightenment is supposed to make for them is to make them aware of the workings of the world and to be satisfied regardless of what happens to them. This is known as “rising yet another step over the top of the hundred-foot bamboo,” seeing how “The top of the bamboo symbolizes the climax of the achievement of Enlightenment. ‘Rising yet another step’ means that after Enlightenment has come, the sage still has other things to do. What he has to do, however, is no more than the ordinary things of daily life. As Nan-ch’uan said: ‘After coming to understand the other side, you come back and live on this side.’ … Although the sage continues living on this side, his understanding of the other side is not in vain. Although what he does is just what everyone else does, yet it has a different significance to him … ‘What the man does is no different from what he did before; it is only that the man himself is not the same as he was.’ The man is not the same, because although what he does is what everyone else does, he has no attachment to anything.” (264).

Neo-Confucianism involved much superstition and cosmology. The ideal sage in Neo-Confucianism is one who uses their wisdom to better the average person in a practical way. The Neo-Confucianists utilized hexagrams to represent the workings of the world, seeing how there are sixty-four hexagrams, each of which is differentiated by the others by the length and continuance of their lines: each represents a phenomenon. The Neo-Confucianists believed that history is a continuous cycle of creation and decay - in short, an endless cycle. Therefore, ideal people should be practical while knowing the truth: “The sage, because he understands the nature of the universe, therefore knows that ‘life entails no gain nor death any loss.’ … Hence he simply tries to live a normal life. In life he does what his duty as a member of society and as a member of the universe requires him to do, and when death comes, he ‘rests.’ He does what every man should do, but because of his understanding, what he does acquires new significance. The Neo-Confucianists developed a point of view from which all the moral activities valued by the Confucianists acquire a further value that is super-moral. They all have in them that quality that the Ch’anists called the wonderful Tao. It is in this sense that Neo-Confucianism is actually a further development of Ch’anism.” (280). Neo-Confucianism eventually split into two schools, seeing that they diverged in their interpretations of li. Yu-Lan then provides a fantastic story that details a sage: a student of Confucius, Yen Hui, was happy with very little (only the necessities). This was due to his being happy and contented with himself since his mind was straightforward and empty, as it was widely believed by the Neo-Confucianists and many other people in China that one’s state of mind and way of thinking is infinitely more important in determining emotions than worldly possessions. The people who follow this mindset are known as feng liu heroes. The Neo-Confucianists were also platonic in their thought, seen in how they believed in the all-embracing standard, otherwise known as the “Supreme Ultimate” (or T’ai Chi). They also believed that Li was the material that produced the shapes of everything while Ch’i focuses on filling objects so as to make them temporal and solid in form. To elaborate, the presence of Li “constitutes only a pure, empty, and vast world, without shapes or traces, and so incapable of producing anything” while the Ch’i “has the capacity to undergo fermentation and condensation, and thus bring things into existence. And yet, whenever the Ch’i exists, the Li is present within it.” (299). The Neo-Confucianists also believed that to achieve enlightenment, one should pay attention to the Li and how it works, as well as the essence of the world. One of the main principles of this world is that the Li works its will to a great degree by being the minds of people, seeing that humans are filled with Li and are consequently greatly influenced by it. Like other schools, Neo-Confucianism states that truly wise individuals do not discriminate, classify, and dislike other people, seeing that every human being is a human being despite their differences (which are usually minuscule compared to the vast similarities humans share). This also extends to everything else: Wang Shou-jen stated that good people should extend their love to inanimate objects like mountains and rivers, as well as living creatures like birds, grasses, and trees. There are “three major cords” and “eight minor wires” to Neo-Confucianism: the three cords are “‘to manifest the illustrious virtue, love people, and rest in the highest good.’” (310). The Neo-Confucianists also believed in intuitive knowledge (“reflexes”) which every person possessed. Since intuitive knowledge is a largely unconscious behavior, this represents that every single person still possesses their original mind (believed to be free of prejudice and bias), which means that “Everyone, in his original nature, is a sage. That is why the followers of Wang Shou-jen were in the habit of saying that ‘the streets are full of sages.’ … every man … can become an actual sage if he but follow the dictates of his intuitive knowledge and act accordingly. What he needs to do, in other words, is to carry his intuitive knowledge into practice, or, in Wang Shou-jen’s terminology, to extend his intuitive knowledge.” (313). The eight minor wires include extending one’s knowledge, investigating the nature of the world, being sincere, thinking good thoughts, cultivating oneself, regulating one’s family, serving the state, and keeping the peace. The Confucianists also criticized the Buddhists, as they maintained that when the Buddhists claimed they had no attachment to anything, they still did. That is, they viewed the Buddhists as escaping the world out of weakness, while they saw themselves as dealing with the problem head-on by encouraging mutual respect and devotion.

China’s modern history when it comes to philosophy was heavily influenced by foreign nations: China isolated itself for centuries, and when they realized that they were not as superior as they once thought, it was a rude awakening indeed. The first people to enter were Christian missionaries: the Chinese made it clear they didn't care for their religion, but they did appreciate their mathematics and science. As European settlers continued to flood in, many people desired a traditional lifestyle, causing the Chinese government to state that Confucianism is the official ethical system of China. As China suffered humiliating instances and defeats in the Taiping Rebellion, the Opium Wars, and the Sino Japanese War, more and more people were willing to turn to Western philosophy, seeing how Confucianism didn't seem to be working. However, there was still much resistance to not only Western philosophy but science, as they challenged the authority of many Chinese institutions. Yu-Lan details that the main difference between Eastern and Western philosophy was that the latter was much more analytical: a popular story went that an immortal gave a man some gold by touching dirt with his finger. The man, if following Eastern philosophy, would gratefully take it: if he followed Western philosophy, he would request for the finger of the deity, seeing that it appeared to be what was responsible for turning things into gold. In the modern world, Chinese philosophy is still very impactful, seeing how Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and even Legalism are still prominent concepts. Moreover, Yu-Lan discusses the spheres of experience: while utilitarianism and innocence are in the lower spheres, a person should strive for the moral and the transcendent. Yu-Lan states that Chinese philosophy frequently focused on what was not known: while this was helpful in defining boundaries, it was detrimental in that too many things were unclear. In his own words, “In the history of Chinese philosophy, the positive method … was much neglected. Therefore, Chinese philosophy has lacked clear thinking, which is one of the reasons why it is marked by simplicity. Lacking clear thinking, its simplicity has been quite naive. Its simplicity as such is commendable, but its naiveté must be removed through the exercise of clear thinking. Clear thinking is not the end of philosophy, but it is the indispensable discipline that every philosopher needs … On the other hand, the history of Western philosophy has not seen a full development of the negative method. It is the combination of the two that will produce the philosophy of the future.” (342).

Personal thoughts:

A Short History of Chinese Philosophy: A Systematic Account of Chinese Thought From Its Origins to the Present Day by Fung Yu-Lan is a fantastic account of the history of philosophy in China. Yu-Lan takes great care to demonstrate the importance of context when it comes to the creation of various schools of thought, and he is descriptive when it comes to their teachings and opinions of humans and the world as a whole. I appreciate the last section in which he wrote about the future of philosophy: looking back at his predictions in 2020, he’s still very relevant, seeing how Eastern and Western philosophy could still do more than what they’ve done in the past. I highly recommend A Short History of Chinese Philosophy: A Systematic Account of Chinese Thought From Its Origins to the Present Day to anyone interested in the importance of contextualization, philosophy, differing opinions, and historical figures and time periods.

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